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Thepropaganda of theRussian Federation promotes views, perceptions or agendas of the government. The media includestate-run outlets and online technologies,[1][2] and may involve using "Soviet-style 'active measures' as an element of modern Russian 'political warfare'".[3] Notably, contemporary Russianpropaganda promotes thecult of personality ofVladimir Putin and positive views ofSoviet history.[4] Russia has established a number of organizations, such as thePresidential Commission of the Russian Federation to Counter Attempts to Falsify History to the Detriment of Russia's Interests (active 2009-2012), theRussian web brigades, and others that engage in political propaganda to promote the views of the Russian government.
At the end of 2008,Lev Gudkov, based on theLevada Center polling data, pointed out the near-disappearance ofpublic opinion as a socio-political institution in contemporary Russia and its replacement withstate propaganda.[5]
Shortly after theBeslan school hostage crisis in September 2004, Putin enhanced a Kremlin-sponsored program aimed at "improving Russia's image" abroad.[6] One of the major projects of the program was the creation in 2005 of Russia Today (now known asRT), an English language TV news channel providing 24-hour news coverage. Towards its start-up budget, $30 million of public funds were allocated.[7][8] ACBS News story on the launch of Russia Today quotedBoris Kagarlitsky as saying it was "very much a continuation of the oldSoviet propaganda services".[9]
Russia's deputy foreign ministerGrigory Karasin said in August 2008, in the context of theRussia–Georgia conflict: "Western media is a well-organized machine, which is showing only those pictures that fit in well with their thoughts. We find it very difficult to squeeze our opinion into the pages of their newspapers."[10] In June 2007,Vedomosti reported that the Kremlin had been intensifying its officiallobbying activities in the United States since 2003, among other things hiring such companies as Hannaford Enterprises andKetchum.[11]
In a 2005 interview with U.S government-owned external broadcasterVoice of America, the Russian-Israeli bloggerAnton Nossik said the creation of RT "smacks ofSoviet-style propaganda campaigns".[12] Pascal Bonnamour, the head of the European department ofReporters Without Borders, called the newly announced network "another step of the state to control information".[13] In 2009,Luke Harding (then the Moscow correspondent) ofThe Guardian described RT's advertising campaign in the United Kingdom as an "ambitious attempt to create a new post-Soviet global propaganda empire".[14] According toLev Gudkov, the director of theLevada Center, Russia's most well respected polling organization, Putin's Russia's propaganda is "aggressive and deceptive ... worse than anything I witnessed in the Soviet Union".[15]
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In 2014, Ivan Zassoursky, a professor of Media and Theory of Communications in the Journalism Department ofMoscow State University, said, "Today there are many complex schemes of influence in the world that can be labeled as soft power. But traditional thuggish methods of propaganda and direct control used by the Russian government cannot be considered effective from the professional standpoint and acceptable from the viewpoint of journalist morality."[17]
Following Russia's 2014 annexation of Crimea, a significant increase in Russian propaganda was noted byNATO.[18] In February 2017, a fabricated audio recording of NATO SecretaryJens Stoltenberg supposedly interacting with Ukrainian PresidentPetro Poroshenko was published by Russian news websiteLife.ru. The supposed voice of Poroshenko was revealed to be Russian pranksters. Russia has been comparing Ukrainian government forces in Donbas to members ofISIS.[19] Political scholar Nikolay Kozhanov has claimed that Russia has used propaganda to convey nationalistic as well as pro-Assad messages during theSyrian Civil War. Kozhanov claims that Russia has made an effort through propaganda to paint Russia and Syria as a stable force "in the struggle against instability caused by the Americans and terrorism supported by the US regional partners".[19]
RT andSputnik news agency are also spreading false information.[20][21][22][23] In the downing ofMalaysia Airlines Flight 17, theBellingcat website ofEliot Higgins gave evidence about the manipulation of satellite images released by theRussian Ministry of Defense which was used by RT and Sputnik news agency based in Edinburgh, Scotland.[24][25]
Continuing Russian propaganda led to several people experiencing the denial of their experience of theRussian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, even by family members from the other side of the information iron curtain.[27][28][29][30] Russian state-controlledmedia systematically downplayed both civilian and military losses, denouncing reports of attacks on civilians as "fake" or blaming Ukrainian forces.[31] Although the1993 Russian Constitution has an article expressly prohibitingcensorship,[32] the Russian censorship apparatusRoskomnadzor ordered the country's media to only employ information from Russian state sources or face fines and blocks, accusing a number of independent media outlets of spreading "unreliable socially significant untrue information" about the shelling of Ukrainian cities by the Russian army and civilian deaths.[33][34]Dmitry Muratov, the editor-in-chief of the Russian independent newspaperNovaya Gazeta, said, "Everything that's not propaganda is being eliminated."[35]
According to researchers, Russia has intensified international propaganda-efforts targetingAfrica,[36][37][38] theMiddle East,[39][40] theBalkans,[41][42] andAsia.[43][44] Increases inArabic-language pro-Russian propaganda was detected during theRussian invasion of Ukraine,[45] Russia has been accused of amplifyinganti-Western post-colonial grievances in Africa through disinformation campaigns.[36][46] Partly due to Russian efforts, pro-Moscow sentiments and blaming the West for the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has become mainstream in much of Africa.[46]
Russia has been accused of usingsocial media platforms to spread messages of propaganda to a global audience by spreadingfake news as well as putting out advertisements and creating pseudo-activist movements.[54] The popularity of Sputnik on social media and its use of viral,clickbait headlines has led it to be described as "theBuzzFeed of Propaganda" byForeign Policy magazine.[55][56]
Russia was accused by the US authorities for efforts to spread fake news and propaganda in an attempt to meddle in the2016 US presidential election.[57][58] Russia is alleged to have used tactics such as creating fraudulent social media accounts, organization of political rallies and online political advertisements in an effort to help Republican presidential nomineeDonald Trump win the election.[59] Senior executives of American social media platforms made an effort to counter alleged Russian propaganda by deleting automated accounts and alerting users of the presence of alleged misinformation on their platforms and interactions users may have had. In January 2017,Twitter estimated that approximately 677,000 users had "interacted with Russian propaganda or bots during the 2016 campaign". Three weeks later Twitter officials said that it is probably more than 1.4 million users were exposed to content stemming from these accounts.[60][61] In 2018, Twitter deleted approximately 200,000 tweets that were found to have stemmed from accounts linked to Russia.[62] On 31 October 2017, executives from Facebook, Google and Twitter testified on Russia's alleged use of social media in the 2016 election, before theHouse Intelligence Committee.[63] In an effort to combat fake news,Facebook announced a plan in January 2018 to attempt to highlight reliable sources of news.[64]
On 17 May 2017, Deputy Attorney GeneralRod Rosenstein appointed former FBI DirectorRobert Mueller to serve as special counsel to theUS Justice Department in an investigation into alleged Russian interference in the 2016 election.[65] On 16 February 2018, TheUS Justice Department indicted thirteen Russian nationals and three Russian companies on charges of attempting to influence the 2016 election in support of the Trump Campaign.[66] Among the organizations indicted was theInternet Research Agency (IRA; active 2013-2023), a St. Petersburg based company that was said to use social media to spread fake news promoting Russian interests. The indictment claims that employees of the IRA were urged to "use any opportunity to criticize Hillary [Clinton]".[67]
Russia has been accused of engaging in propaganda campaigns in an effort to sway public opinion concerning the nation's annexation of Crimea in 2014. Russian social media operations were allegedly undertaken to use misinformation to appeal to pro-Russian forces in Crimea, while discrediting rebel and separatist groups. Notably, a false story was spread throughout social media of a young child being crucified by Ukrainian forces in Slovyansk.[68] The Ukrainian government also banned several Russian internet services, including the popular social media network,VK, which has been criticized as being censorship, affecting millions of Ukrainians.[69][70]
Since coming to power in 2000, Putin and his government promoted the idea of "patriotic education" in educational reforms in order to spread propaganda and increase the loyalty to the regime. Putin has insisted that students learn patriotic values in schools, that lessons in history, languages and the arts should inspire pride among youth and strengthen their "patriotism". At first, these efforts to bring about educational changes had limited success, however, after theAnnexation of Crimea in 2014, according toThe Washington Post, the "patriotic" reforms and the emphasis on patriotism has grown, while freedom of speech in schools declined, and teachers also became more likely to be fired for publicly expressing political views. The national Russian symbols became more celebrated, and in 2014, the Russian government approved a new set of history textbooks, which featured a revised narrative of historical events and praised Putin's achievements and the annexation of Crimea.[71]
On 21 May 2020,The Moscow Times reported that Russian PresidentVladimir Putin made another effort to introduce "patriotic lessons" for Russian students.[72]
Following theRussian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Russian government increased their efforts to introduce "patriotic education" into schools by passing new education laws, revising school textbooks, and introducing teaching guides that help teachers deliver "patriotic" lessons which would justify the invasion.[71][73]
In September 2022, the Ministry of Education rolled out a series of compulsory lesson plans, developed in large part by Education MinisterSergey Kravtsov, titledConversations about Important Things (Russian:Разговоры о важном,romanized: Razgovory o vazhnom,lit. 'Conversations about that which is important', orImportant Conversations for short).[74][75][76]Important Conversations includes lessons on "patriotism" taught to children beginning at the age of six such as "the happiness of the motherland is more precious than life", that "a true patriot should be ready to defend the country", and "it's not scary to die for the motherland".[76] It also teaches children about Russian heroes such as Soviet cosmonautYuri Gagarin, and covers various topics from the Russian government's perspective, such as national identity, patriotism, traditional values and world events. Putin hosted an inaugural lesson with selected students in the Russian exclave ofKaliningrad, on 1 September 2022.[74][77] TheAssociated Press reported that some parents were shocked by themilitaristic nature ofImportant Conversations lessons, with some comparing them to the "patriotic education" of the formerSoviet Union.[78] Some Russian students and their parents have been investigated by the police, or threatened with expulsion, for refusing to attend theImportant Conversations lessons.[79][80]
In the first week of March, Russian schools held an "All-Russia Open Lesson", a virtual lesson to further justify the need to wage war on Ukraine and the "danger" of NATO[81] (seedisinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine). TheMinistry of Education also distributed manuals to teachers, instructing them on how to discuss the war, including an "approved" version of the conflict. One manual explicitly claims Russia's war in Ukraine "is not a war".[81] Russian teachers faced prosecution for expressing anti-war views in and outside the classroom.[71] Putin signed legislation expanding Russia'sforeign agent law. Under the expansions, any persons or organizations who receive support of any type, not just financial, are added to a Justice Ministry list of "foreign agents". "Foreign agents" are barred from receiving state funding, teaching at state universities, or working with children. The Roskomnadzor was given the authority to block "foreign agent" websites at the Justice Ministry's request without need for a court order.[76] In Summer of 2022, Putin approved the creation of nationwidechildren's and youth movement modeled after theSoviet pioneer organisations.
In August 2023, a history textbook written byVladimir Medinsky claimed that after thecollapse of the Soviet Union, the "West became fixated with destabilising the situation inside Russia. The aim was not even hidden: to dismember Russia and to get control over its resources." According to critics, the textbook spreads Kremlin propaganda and theworldview of Vladimir Putin.[82]
Due to the propaganda in the Russian Federation, theEuropean External Action Service founded theEast StratCom Task Force in 2015 to count and display cases of untruths propagated in Russia about the EU and its member states.[83][84]
According toMykola Riabchuk, Ukrainian journalist and political analyst, the Russian propaganda evolved into a full-fledgedinformation war during theRusso-Ukrainian War. Riabchuk writes: "Three major narratives emerged that can be summed up as 'Ukraine's borders are artificial', 'Ukraine's society is deeply divided', and 'Ukrainian institutions are irreparably dysfunctional'", thus needing "external, apparently Russian, guardianship".[85]
During a hearing in the US Congress in 2015, Leon Aron, director of Russian studies at theAmerican Enterprise Institute, described the Russian-sponsored TV networkRT (formerly known as Russia Today) as not only promoting the Russian "brand", but aiming to "devalue the ideas of democratic transparency and responsibility, undermine the belief in the reliability of public information and fill the airwaves with half-truths". He described Russian state propaganda as "aggressive, often subtle, and effective in its use of the Internet".[86]
Peter Pomerantsev, a British TV producer, in his 2014 bookNothing Is True and Everything Is Possible, argues that the propaganda's goals are not to convince, as in the classical propaganda, but to make an information field "dirty" so people would not trust anyone.[87][88]
Discussing the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014,John Kerry,United States Secretary of State, referred to RT as a state-sponsored "propaganda bullhorn" and continued, "Russia Today [sic] network has deployed to promote president Putin's fantasy about what is playing out on the ground. They almost spend full-time devoted to this effort, to propagandize, and to distort what is happening or not happening in Ukraine."[89] Cliff Kincaid, the director ofAccuracy in Media's Center for Investigative Journalism, called RT "the well-known disinformation outlet for Russian propaganda".[90]
Members of European parliament have argued that Europe needs to strengthen its defense against Russian propaganda citing alleged Russian meddling in French, German and Spanish elections as well asBrexit.[91] In March 2015, The East Stratcom Task Force was created with the backing of theEuropean Union in order to counter Russian efforts to spread misinformation and fake news.[92]
On 14 March 2022,Marina Ovsyannikova, an editor for Russia's main state-controlled TV stationChannel One, interrupted the television's live broadcast to protest against the Russian invasion of Ukraine,[93] carrying a poster stating in a mix of Russian and English: "Stop the war, don't believe the propaganda, here you are being lied to."[94]
On 5 April 2022, Russia's opposition politicianAlexei Navalny said the "monstrosity of lies" in theRussian state media "is unimaginable. And, unfortunately, so is its persuasiveness for those who have no access to alternative information."[95] He tweeted that "warmongers" among Russian state media personalities "should be treated as war criminals. From the editors-in-chief to the talk show hosts to the news editors, [they] should be sanctioned now and tried someday."[96]
…so-called "conversations about important things"…
