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 SRI International's headquarters inMenlo Park, California | |
| Formerly | Stanford Research Institute (1946–1970) |
|---|---|
| Company type | 501(c)(3)nonprofitscientificresearch institute |
| Industry | |
| Founded | Menlo Park, California (1946; 79 years ago (1946)) |
| Founder | Trustees ofStanford University |
| Headquarters | Menlo Park, California, U.S. |
Area served | Worldwide |
Key people | David Parekh (CEO) |
| Services | |
| Revenue | US$410 million (2022)[1] |
Number of employees | 2,100 (as of February 2015[update])[2] |
| Website | www |
SRI International (SRI) is anonprofitscientificresearch institute and organization headquartered inMenlo Park, California, United States. It was established in 1946 by trustees ofStanford University to serve as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region.
The organization was founded as theStanford Research Institute. SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977. SRI performs client-sponsoredresearch and development for government agencies, commercial businesses, and private foundations. It also licenses its technologies,[3] forms strategic partnerships, sells products,[4] and createsspin-off companies.[5] SRI's headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus.
SRI's annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $540 million, which tripled from 1998 under the leadership ofCurtis Carlson. In 1998, the organization was on the verge of bankruptcy when Carlson took over as CEO. Over the next sixteen years with Carlson asCEO, the organizational culture of SRI was transformed. SRI tripled in size, became very profitable, and created many world-changinginnovations using the NABC framework. One of its successes wasSiri, a personal assistant oniPhone, which was developed by a company SRI created and then sold toApple.[6]William A. Jeffrey served as SRI's president and CEO from September 2014 to December 2021, and was succeeded as CEO by David Parekh.
SRI employs about 2,100 people.[2]Sarnoff Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988, was fully integrated into SRI on January 3, 2011.[7]
SRI's focus areas include biomedical sciences, chemistry and materials, computing, Earth and space systems, economic development, education and learning, energy andenvironmental technology, security, national defense, sensing, and devices.[8] SRI has received more than 4,000patents and patent applications worldwide.[9]
In the 1920s,Stanford University professorRobert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in theWestern United States.Herbert Hoover, then a trustee of Stanford University, was also an early proponent of an institute but became less involved with the project after being elected president of the United States. The development of the institute was delayed by theGreat Depression in the 1930s andWorld War II in the 1940s, with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946.[10]
In August 1945,Maurice Nelles, Morlan A. Visel, and Ernest L. Black ofLockheed made the first attempt to create the institute with the formation of the "Pacific Research Foundation" in Los Angeles.[11] A second attempt was made byHenry T. Heald, then president of theIllinois Institute of Technology. In 1945, Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast and a close association with Stanford University with an initial grant of $500,000 (equivalent to $6,711,000 in 2023).[12][13] A third attempt was made byFred Terman, Stanford University's dean of engineering. Terman's proposal followed Heald's but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research.[12]
Thetrustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946. It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university—to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large, not just the students of Stanford University.[12] The trustees were named as the corporation'sgeneral members, and elected SRI's directors (later known as presidents); if the organization were dissolved, its assets would return to Stanford University.[14]
Research chemistWilliam F. Talbot became the institute's first director.[14] Stanford University presidentDonald Tresidder instructed Talbot to avoid work that would conflict with the interests of the university, particularly federal contracts that might attract political pressure.[14] The drive to find work and the lack of support from Stanford faculty caused the new research institute to violate this directive six months later through the pursuit of a contract with theOffice of Naval Research.[15] This and other issues, including frustration with Tresidder's micromanagement of the new organization, caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation, which Tresidder eventually accepted.[16] Talbot was replaced byJesse Hobson, who had previously led theArmour Research Foundation, but the pursuit of contract work remained.[17]
SRI's first research project investigated whether theguayule plant could be used as a source ofnatural rubber.[18] During World War II, rubber was imported into the U.S. and was subject to shortages and strict rationing.[18] From 1942 to 1946, theUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) supported a project to create a domestic source of natural rubber. Once the war ended, the United States Congress cut funding for the program; in response, the Office of Naval Research created a grant for the project to continue at SRI, and the USDA staff worked through SRI until Congress reauthorized funding in 1947.[18]
SRI's first economic study was for the United States Air Force. In 1947, the Air Force wanted to determine the expansion potential of the U.S. aircraft industry; SRI found that it would take too long to escalate production in an emergency.[19] In 1948, SRI began research and consultation withChevron Corporation to develop an artificial substitute fortallow andcoconut oil in soap production; SRI's investigation confirmed the potential ofdodecylbenzene as a suitable replacement. Later,Procter & Gamble used the substance as the basis forTide laundrydetergent.[20]
The institute performed much of the early research onair pollution and the formation ofozone in the lower atmosphere.[21] SRI sponsored theFirst National Air Pollution Symposium inPasadena, California, in November 1949.[21] Experts gave presentations on pollution research, exchanged ideas and techniques, and stimulated interest in the field. The event was attended by 400 scientists, business executives, and civic leaders from the U.S.[21] SRI co-sponsored subsequent events on the subject.[22]
In April 1953,Walt andRoy Disney hired SRI (and in particular,Harrison Price) to consult on their proposal for establishing an amusement park inBurbank, California.[23] SRI provided information on location, attendance patterns, and economic feasibility. SRI selected a larger site inAnaheim, prepared reports about the operation, provided on-site administrative support forDisneyland, and acted in an advisory role as the park expanded.[23][24][25] In 1955, SRI was commissioned to select a site and provide design suggestions for theJohn F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.[26]
In 1952, theTechnicolor Corporation contracted with SRI to develop a near-instantaneous, electro-optical alternative to the manual timing process during film copying.[27] In 1959, theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented the Scientific and Engineering Award jointly to SRI and Technicolor for their work on the design and development of the Technicolor electronic printing timer which greatly benefited the motion picture industry.[28] In 1954,Southern Pacific asked SRI to investigate ways of reducing damage during rail freight shipments by mitigating shock to railroad box cars. This investigation led toWilliam K. MacCurdy's development of the Hydra-Cushion technology, which remains standard.[29][30]
In the 1950s, SRI worked under the direction of theBank of America to develop ERMA (Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting) andmagnetic ink character recognition (MICR). The ERMA project was led by computer scientistJerre Noe, SRI's assistant director of engineering at the time.[31] As of 2011, MICR remains the industry standard in automated check processing.[32][33][34]
Douglas Engelbart, the founder of SRI'sAugmentation Research Center (ARC), was the primary force behind the design and development of the multi-useroN-Line System (or NLS), featuring original versions of modern computer-human interface elements includingbit-mapped displays,collaboration software,hypertext, and precursors to thegraphical user interface such as thecomputer mouse.[35] As a pioneer of human-computer interaction, Engelbart is arguably SRI's most notable alumnus. He was awarded theNational Medal of Technology and Innovation in 2000.[36]
Bill English, then chief engineer at ARC, built the first prototype of a computer mouse from Engelbart's design in 1964.[37][38] SRI also developedinkjet printing (1961) andoptical disc recording (1963).[39]Liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology was developed at RCA Laboratories in the 1960s, which later becameSarnoff Corporation in 1988, a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI. Sarnoff was fully integrated into SRI in 2011.[40]
In the early 1960s,Hewitt Crane and his colleagues developed the world's first all-magnetic digital computer,[41] based upon extensions to magnetic core memories. The technology was licensed toAMP Inc., who then used it to build specialized computers for controlling tracks in theNew York City Subway and on railroad switching yards.[42]
In 1966, SRI'sArtificial Intelligence Center began working on "Shakey the robot", the first mobilerobot to reason about its actions.[43] Equipped with atelevision camera, atriangulatingrangefinder, and bumpsensors, Shakey used software for perception, world-modeling, and acting. The project ended in 1972.[44] SRI's Artificial Intelligence Center marked its 45th anniversary in 2011.
On October 29, 1969, the first connection on awide area network to usepacket switching,ARPANET, was established between nodes atLeonard Kleinrock's laboratory atUniversity of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Douglas Engelbart's laboratory at SRI usingInterface Message Processors at both sites.[45][46] The following year, Engelbart's laboratory installed the firstTENEX system outside ofBBN where it was developed. In addition to SRI and UCLA,University of California, Santa Barbara and theUniversity of Utah were part of the original four network nodes. By December 5, 1969, the entire four-node network was connected. In the 1970s, SRI developed packet-switched radio (a precursor to wireless networking),[47]over-the-horizon radar,[48][49]Deafnet,[50][51] vacuum microelectronics, and software-implementedfault tolerance.
The first trueInternet transmission occurred on November 22, 1977, when SRI originated the first connection between three disparate networks. Data flowed seamlessly through the mobilePacket Radio Van between SRI in Menlo Park, California, and the University of Southern California in Los Angeles viaUniversity College London,England, across three types of networks:packet radio,satellite, and the ARPANET.[52] In 2007, theComputer History Museum presented a 30th-anniversary celebration of this demonstration, which included several participants from the 1977 event.[53] SRI would go on to run theNetwork Information Center under the leadership ofJake Feinler.[54]
TheVietnam War (1955–1975) was an important issue on college campuses across the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. As a belated response toVietnam War protesters who believed that funding from theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) made the university part of themilitary–industrial complex,[55] the Stanford Research Institute split from Stanford University in 1970. The organization subsequently changed its name from the Stanford Research Institute to SRI International in 1977.[2][56][57]
In 1972, physicistsHarold E. Puthoff andRussell Targ undertook a series of investigations of psychic phenomena sponsored by theCIA, for which they coined the termremote viewing.[58][59][60] Among other activities, the project encompassed the work of consulting "consciousness researchers" including artist/writerIngo Swann, military intelligence officerJoseph McMoneagle, and psychic/illusionistUri Geller.[61] ThisESP work continued with funding from the US intelligence community until Puthoff and Targ left SRI in the mid-1980s.[62][63] For more information, seeParapsychology research at SRI.
Social scientist and consumer futuristArnold Mitchell created theValues, Attitudes and Lifestyles (VALS)psychographic methodology in the late 1970s to explain changing U.S. values and lifestyles.[64] VALS was formally inaugurated as an SRI product in 1978 and was called "one of the ten top market research breakthroughs of the 1980s" byAdvertising Age magazine.[65]
Throughout the 1980s, SRI developedZylon,[66]stealth technologies, improvements toultrasound imaging,[28] two-dimensional laserfluorescence imaging,[67] andmany-sorted logic. In computing and software, SRI developed a multimedia electronic mail system, a theory ofnon-interference in computer security, amultilevel secure (MLS)relational database system called Seaview,[67]LaTeX,[68]Open Agent Architecture (OAA), anetwork intrusion detection system, theMaude system, a declarative software language, and PacketHop, a peer-to-peer wireless technology to create scalable ad hoc networks.[69] SRI's research in network intrusion detection led to thepatent infringement caseSRI International, Inc. v. Internet Security Systems, Inc.[70] The AI center's robotics research led to Shakey's successor,Flakey the robot, which focused on fuzzy logic.[71][72]
In 1986, SRI.com became the8th registered ".com" domain.[73] The Artificial Intelligence Center developed theProcedural Reasoning System (PRS) in the late 1980s and into the early 1990s. PRS launched the field ofBDI-basedintelligent agents.[74] In the 1990s, SRI developed a letter sorting system for theUnited States Postal Service and several education and economic studies.[75]
Military-related technologies developed by SRI in the 1990s and 2000s includeground- and foliage-penetrating radar, the INCON and REDDEcommand and control system for the U.S. military,[76] and IGRS (integrated GPS radio system)—an advanced military personnel andvehicle tracking system. To train armored combat units during battle exercises, SRI developed the Deployable Force-on-Force Instrumented Range System (DFIRST), which usesGPS satellites, high-speed wireless communications, and digital terrain map displays.[77]
SRI created theCentibots in 2003, one of the first and largest teams of coordinated, autonomous mobile robots that explore, map, and survey unknown environments.[78][79][80][81] It also createdBotHunter, a free utility forUnix, which detectsbotnet activity within a network.[82][83]
With DARPA-funded research, SRI contributed to the development ofspeech recognition andtranslation products[84][85] and was an active participant in DARPA'sGlobal Autonomous Language Exploitation (GALE) program.[85] SRI developed DynaSpeak speech recognition technology, which was used in the handheld VoxTecPhraselator, allowing U.S. soldiers overseas to communicate with local citizens in near real-time.[86] SRI also created translation software for use in theIraqComm, a device which allows two-way, speech-to-speech machine translation between English and colloquialIraqi Arabic.[87]
In medicine and chemistry, SRI developeddry-powder drugs,[88]laser photocoagulation (a treatment for some eye maladies),[89]remote surgery (also known as telerobotic surgery), bio-agent detection using upconverting phosphor technology, the experimental anticancer drugsTirapazamine andTAS-108,ammonium dinitramide (an environmentally benign oxidizer for safe and cost-effective disposal of hazardous materials), theelectroactive polymer ("artificial muscle"), new uses fordiamagnetic levitation, and the antimalarial drugHalofantrine.[28][90]
SRI performed a study in the 1990s forWhirlpool Corporation that led to modernself-cleaning ovens.[91] In the 2000s, SRI worked on Pathway Tools software for use in bioinformatics and systems biology to accelerate drug discovery using artificial intelligence and symbolic computing techniques.[92] The software system generates theBioCyc database collection, SRI's growing collection ofgenomic databases used by biologists to visualize genes within achromosome, complete biochemical pathways, and fullmetabolic maps of organisms.[93]
SRI researchers made the first observation of visible light emitted by oxygen atoms in the night-sideairglow ofVenus, offering new insight into the planet's atmosphere.[94][95][96] SRI education researchers conducted the first national evaluation of the growing U.S.charter schools movement. For theWorld Golf Foundation, SRI compiled the first-ever estimate of the overall scope of the U.S.golf industry's goods and services ($62 billion in 2000), providing a framework for monitoring the long-term growth of the industry.[97][98] In April 2000, SRI formed Atomic Tangerine, an independent consulting firm designed to bring new technologies and services to market.[99]
In 2006, SRI was awarded a $56.9 million contract with theNational Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to provide preclinical services for the development of drugs and antibodies foranti-infective treatments foravian influenza,SARS,West Nile virus andhepatitis.[100] Also in 2006, SRI selectedSt. Petersburg, Florida, as the site for a new marine technology research facility targeted at ocean science, themaritime industry andport security; the facility is a collaboration with theUniversity of South Florida College of Marine Science and its Center for Ocean Technology.[101][102][103] That facility created a new method for underwatermass spectrometry, which has been used to conduct "advanced underwater chemical surveys in oil and gas exploration and production, ocean resource monitoring and protection, and water treatment and management" and was licensed to Spyglass Technologies in March 2014.[104]
In December 2007, SRI launched a spin-off company,Siri Inc., which Apple acquired in April 2010.[105] In October 2011, Apple announced the Siri personal assistant as an integrated feature of theAppleiPhone 4S.[106] Siri's technology was born from SRI's work on the DARPA-fundedCALO project, described by SRI as the largestartificial intelligence project ever launched.[107] Siri was co-founded in December 2007 by Dag Kittlaus (CEO),Adam Cheyer (vice president, engineering), andTom Gruber (CTO/vice president, design), together withNorman Winarsky (vice president of SRI Ventures). Investors includedMenlo Ventures and Morgenthaler Ventures.[108]
For theNational Science Foundation (NSF), SRI operates the advanced modularincoherent scatter radar (AMISR), a novel relocatable atmospheric research facility.[109] Other SRI-operated research facilities for the NSF include theArecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and theSondrestrom Upper Atmospheric Research Facility in Greenland. In May 2011, SRI was awarded a $42 million contract to operate the Arecibo Observatory from October 1, 2011, to September 30, 2016.[110] The institute also manages theHat Creek Radio Observatory in Northern California, home of theAllen Telescope Array.[111]
In February 2014, SRI announced a "photonics-based testing technology called FASTcell" for the detection and characterization of rare circulating tumor cells from blood samples. The test is aimed at cancer-specific biomarkers for breast, lung, prostate, colorectal, and leukemia cancers that circulate in the bloodstream in minute quantities, potentially diagnosing those conditions earlier.[112]
In September 2018, the NSF announced that SRI International would be awarded $4.4 million to establish the backbone organization of a national network.[113]
In April 2023,Xerox announced that it would donatePARC and its related assets to SRI. As part of the deal, Xerox would keep most of the patent rights inside PARC, and benefit from a preferred research agreement with SRI/PARC.[114]
As of February 2015, SRI employs approximately 2,100 people.[2] In 2014, SRI had about $540 million in revenue.[2] In 2013, theUnited States Department of Defense consisted of 63% of awards by value; the remainder was composed of theNational Institutes of Health (11%); businesses and industry (8%); other United States agencies (6%); the National Science Foundation (6%); theUnited States Department of Education (4%); and foundations (2%).[115]
As of February 2015, approximately 4,000 patents have been granted to SRI International and its employees.[9]
SRI is primarily based on a 63-acre (0.25 km2; 0.10 sq mi) campus located inMenlo Park, California, which is considered part ofSilicon Valley. This campus encompasses 1,300,000square feet (120,000 m2) of office and lab space.[116] In addition, SRI has a 254-acre (1.028 km2; 0.397 sq mi) campus inPrinceton, New Jersey, with 600,000 square feet (56,000 m2) of research space. There are also offices inWashington, D.C., andTokyo, Japan. In total, SRI has 2,300,000 square feet (210,000 m2) of office and laboratory space.[116]
SRI International is organized into seven units (generally called divisions) focusing on specific subject areas.[117]
| Name | Research area | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| Advanced Technology and Systems | SRI's largest organizational unit manages complex projects for government and commercial clients in areas such aschemistry,physics, andmaterials science;geospace studies and space andmarine technology;surveillance andremote sensing; appliedoptics and secure circuits; androbotics,medical devices, andnanotechnology. | [118] |
| Biosciences | SRI Biosciences works with academic, commercial, foundation, and government clients and partners to bring new medicines to market throughbasic research, pharmaceutical discovery,preclinical development, and clinical translation. SRI has helped move more than 100 drugs intoclinical trials. | [119][120] |
| Education | SRI Education works with government officials, private foundations, and commercial clients to provide research-based analysis and evaluation of programs to identify trends, understand outcomes, and guidepublic policy and practice. Focus areas include early learning,educational technology, social and emotional learning,teacher quality assessments, college and career readiness, and large-scalesurveys. | [121] |
| Global Partnerships | It comprises three groups: the Center for Science, Technology, and Economic Development, the Center for Innovation Leadership, the Energy Center, and a team focused on R&D programs for international clients. | [122] |
| Information and Computing Sciences | For its government and commercial clients, this division conducts R&D activities to understand the computational principles underlying human and machine intelligence and create computer-based systems that solve problems. ICS is organized into four laboratories, one of which is SRI'sArtificial Intelligence Center. The division focuses onartificial intelligence,speech recognition,natural language processing,bioinformatics, andcomputer security. | [123] |
| Mission Solutions | Mission Solutions performs technology and services in supportU.S. government-deployed systems. The division focuses oninformation operations,navigation, andsurvivability systems and systems and signal technology. | [124] |
| Products and Solutions | This SRI division transitions R&D technology into products for its government and commercial clients. It maintains a portfolio that includesbiometric identification systems, real-timevideo processing systems, integrated video andsensor exploitation solutions, and video test tools. | [125] |
SRI has had a chief executive of some form since its establishment. Before the split with Stanford University, the position was known as the director; after the split, it is known as the company's president and CEO. SRI has had nine so far, including William F. Talbot (1946–1947),[17] Jesse E. Hobson (1947–1955),[126]E. Finley Carter (1956–1963),[127]Charles Anderson (1968–1979),[128]William F. Miller (1979–1990),[129]James J. Tietjen (1990–1993),[130]William P. Sommers (1993–1998)[131]Curtis Carlson (1998–2014).[132] More recently, the role was split into two. The current CEO is David Parekh[133] and the president is Manish Kothari (formerly president of SRI Ventures).
SRI also has had a board of directors since its inception, which has both guided and provided opportunities for the organization. The current board of directors includesSamuel Armacost (Chairman of the Board Emeritus),Mariann Byerwalter (chairman), William A. Jeffrey,Charles A. Holloway (vice-chairman),Vern Clark,Robert L. Joss,Leslie F. Kenne,Henry Kressel,David Liddle,Philip J. Quigley, Wendell Wierenga andJohn J. Young Jr.[134]
Its notable researchers includeElmer Robinson (meteorologist), co-author of the 1968 SRI report to theAmerican Petroleum Institute (API) on the risks of fossil fuel burning to the global climate.[135] Many notable researchers were involved with the Augmentation Research Center. These include Douglas Engelbart, the developer of the modern GUI;[136]William English, the inventor of the mouse;[137]Jeff Rulifson, the primary developer of the NLS;[138] Elizabeth J. Feinler, who ran the Network Information Center;[139] andDavid Maynard, who would help foundElectronic Arts.[140]
The Artificial Intelligence Center has also produced a large number of notable alumni, many of whom contributed to Shakey the robot;[141] these include project managerCharles Rosen,[142] as well asNils Nilsson,[143]Bertram Raphael,[141]Richard O. Duda,[144]Peter E. Hart,[144]Richard Fikes,[145] andRichard Waldinger.[146] AI researcherGary Hendrix went on to foundSymantec.[147][148] FormerYahoo! President and CEOMarissa Mayer performed a research internship at the Center in the 1990s.[149] The CALO project (and its spin-off,Siri) also produced notable names includingC. Raymond Perrault and Adam Cheyer.[150][151]
Several SRI projects produced notable researchers and engineers long before computing was mainstream. Early employeePaul M. Cook foundedRaychem.[152] William K. MacCurdy developed the Hydra-Cushion freight car for Southern Pacific in 1954;[29] Hewitt Crane and Jerre Noe were instrumental in the development of Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting;[42] Harrison Price helpedThe Walt Disney Company design Disneyland;[24]James C. Bliss developed theOptacon;[153] andRobert Weitbrecht invented the firsttelecommunications device for the deaf.[154][155]
Working with investment andventure capital firms, SRI and its former employees have launched more than 60 spin-off ventures[156] in a wide range of fields, includingSiri (acquired by Apple), Tempo AI (acquired bySalesforce.com), Redwood Robotics (acquired byGoogle),Desti (acquired byHERE),Grabit, Kasisto, Passio, Artificial Muscle, Inc. (acquired byBayer MaterialScience),Nuance Communications,Intuitive Surgical, Ravenswood Solutions, andOrchid Cellmark.[5][157][158]
Some former SRI staff members have also established new companies. In engineering and analysis, for example, notable companies formed by SRI alums includeWeitbrecht Communications,[159]Exponent andRaychem.[158] Companies in the area of legal, policy and business analysis includeFair Isaac Corporation,Global Business Network andInstitute for the Future.[158]
Research in computing and computer science-related areas led to the development of many companies, including Symantec, theAustralian Artificial Intelligence Institute,E-Trade, andVerbatim Corporation. Wireless technologies spawnedFiretide and venture capital firm enVia Partners.[158] Health systems research inspiredTelesensory Systems.[158][160]
In 1966, the Stanford Research Institute created the first mobile robot that could reason about its surroundings.
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