Founded in the 6th century during the rule of theGonanda dynasty according to theRajatarangini, the city took on the name of an earlier capital thought to have been founded by theMauryas in its vicinity. The city remained the most important capital of the Kashmir Valley under the Hindu dynasties, and was a major centre of learning. During the 14th–16th centuries the city's old town saw major expansions, particularly under theShah Mir dynasty, whose kings used various parts of it as their capitals. It became the spiritual centre of Kashmir, and attracted severalSufi preachers. It also started to emerge as a hub ofshawl weaving and other Kashmiri handicrafts. In the late 16th century, the city became part of theMughal Empire, many of whose emperors used it as their summer resort. Many Mughal gardens were built in the city and around Dal lake during this time, of whichShalimar andNishat are the most well-known.
After passing through the hands of the AfghanDurranis and theSikhs in the late 18th and early 19th century, it eventually became the summer capital of theDogra kingdom ofJammu and Kashmir in 1846. The city became a popular tourist destination among Europeans and Indian elites during this time, with several hotels and its iconic houseboats being built. In 1952, the city became the summer capital ofJammu and Kashmir, a region administered by India as a state, withJammu being its winter capital. It was the flashpoint of violence during the 1990s and early 2000sinsurgency in the region. In 2019, it became the summer capital of a smaller region which is administered by India as a union territory, after the former state'sreorganisation.
Etymology
The earliest records, such as Kalhana'sRajatarangini, mentions theSanskrit nameshri-nagara which have been interpreted distinctively by scholars in two ways: one being"The city of "Śrī" (श्री), the Hindu goddess of prosperity, meaning "City ofLakshmi"[14][15][16][17][18][19]and other beingsūrya-nagar, meaning "City of theSurya" (trans)"City of Sun."[20][21][22][23] The name was used for an older capital in the vicinity of the present-day city, before being used for it.[24] Between the 14th and 19th centuries, and especially during Mughal rule, the city was also referred to simply asKashmir orShahr-i-Kashmir (lit.'City of Kashmir').[25]
According to theRajatarangini ofKalhana, a capital city by the name ofSrinagari was built in the Kashmir valley byAshoka.[b] Kalhana calls this capitalpuranadhisthana, Sanskrit for 'old capital', identified as present-day Pandrethan, 3.5 kilometres south-east of Srinagar.[26] A 'new capital' was built by kingPravarasena, calledParvarapura, in 6th century CE.Srinagari continued to be used as a name for this capital. This new capital was located at the base of the Hari Parbat hill on the right bank of the Jhelum, corresponding to the location of modern-day Srinagar.[28] Kalhana describes the capital having several markets, mansions, wooden houses, grand temples and canals, and also refers to the Dal lake and Jhelum river.[29] A long embankment was constructed on the Jhelum by Pravarasena to protect the city from floods, parts of which have survived to the present day.[30] The two capitals are also mentioned in the chronicle of Chinese travellerHuein Tsang who visited the city in 631 CE.[31][32] Although several other capitals of Kashmir were constructed by other rulers over the next few centuries, Pravarasena's Srinagar survived as the capital.[c] The city was divided into several parts, each with its own guardian deity, which continue to be worshipped byHindu Kashmiris.[34] The 8th century scholarAdi Shankara visited the city and founded theShankaracharya Temple here, at the site of the earlier Jyeshteshwara Temple.[35] The city gradually extended to the left bank of the Jhelum river, and in the early 12th century the royal palace was shifted to this side.[36]
Sultanate period
The Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, built in the beginning of 15th century CE
Rinchana, a Buddhist convert to Islam who briefly ruled Kashmir in the early 14th century, built the first mosque in Kashmir on the site of a Buddhist temple in a colony of Srinagar built by him.[37] The Muslim rulers that came after him established their capitals in areas of present-day old city Srinagar.[38] During the rule of the Sultans, the city became synonymous with the Kashmir valley, and 'Srinagar' fell into disuse as a name for it.[d][36] During the rule of Qutbuddin, Islamic preacherMir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited the valley and established his seat of preaching in Srinagar. SultanSikandar Shahmiri (1389–1413 CE) built theKhanqah-e-Moula at this location, and also built theJamia Mosque at Nowhatta in 1402.[39] The oldest surviving example of forcible conversion of a Hindu place of worship into Muslim shrine in Kashmir also appears from Srinagar under Sikandar's rule.[40] Sikandar's successorZain-ul-Abidin undertook several constructions in and around Srinagar. He built theZainakadal bridge connecting the two halves of the city on either side of the Jhelum river, theMar canal and two islands inside Dal lake called Sona Lank and Rupa Lank.[41] He also built a stone shrine for his Islamic teacher atMadin Sahib, and a brick mausoleum for his mother constructed using materials from a Hindu structure and showing Timurid influences,[42] where he was also buried after his death. He is also credited with establishing industries around the arts of shawl and carpet weaving, papier-maché, and wood carving in Srinagar.[43]
Mughal rule
Nishat Bagh, a Mughal Garden built during the reign ofShah Jahan on the northern bank of the Dal lake, in the vicinity of Srinagar
TheMughals annexed Kashmir in 1586 after a period of internal instability in the valley, and added it to their Kabul province. Mughal emperorAkbar visited the valley three times. During his second visit in 1592, an elaborateDiwali celebration was held in Srinagar.[44] On the final such visit, he was accompanied by the first recorded European visitors to the area.[e] Akbar built fortifications around the Hari Parbat hill, and established a township calledNagar Nagar there.[45] He also built a shrine forHamza Makhdoom, a Sufi mystic of Kashmir'sRishi order, on the southern slope of Hari Parbat which was later expanded several times.[46]
His successorJahangir was particularly fond of the Kashmir valley and frequently visited it.[45] His rule brought prosperity to Srinagar, and several Mughal gardens were built in the city and around the Dal lake during his and his successorShah Jahan's reign, including theShalimar andNishat Bagh. EmpressNur Jahan built thePathar Mosque on the left bank of Jhelum river opposite theKhānqāh-e-Moula in 1623, the mosque was however deemed unfit for worship soon after its construction and used instead for non-religious purposes.[47]
Shah Jahan made Kashmir into a separateSubah (province) with its administrative seat at Srinagar in 1638. TheAali Masjid was built during the reign ofAurangzeb (1658–1707), as was the Safa kadal bridge over the Jhelum. Themoi muqaddas, a relic believed to be the hair strand of prophet Muhammad's beard, also arrived in Kashmir during this time, and was housed in a Mughal palace atHazratbal, which became theHazratbal Dargah. A number of Europeans visited the city during the later Mughal period.[f]
Afghan and Sikh rule
In 1753, Kashmir passed into the hands of the AfghanDurrani Empire. The Afghans undertook reconstructions in Srinagar and built the palace atShergarhi at the site of a pre-existing ancient palace, as well as the fort atop Hari Parbat.[49] However, contemporary accounts describe the city as filthy and deteriorating, and it also saw worsening inter-community relations during Afghan rule, with repeated Hindu-Muslim and Shia-Sunni riots, and state persecution of Pandits.[50] In 1819, theSikh Empire assumed control of Kashmir. Under them,Srinagar, the old name of the city, was restored. The situation in the city did not improve much under Sikh rule, and the city remained in a state of decay.[51] They also imposed several restrictions on Muslim religious expression, and closed the gates of the Jamia Mosque, which remained closed until 1843. A Shia-Sunni riot happened in the city in 1837.[50]
Dogra rule
An 1872 painting depicting the city of Srinagar.
With the establishment ofDogra rule following the 1846Treaty of Amritsar, Srinagar became the capital of theprincely state ofJammu and Kashmir. Taxes were increased and the production of silk, saffron, paper, tobacco, wine, and salt, as well as the sale of grain, became the monopoly of the state. It was a capital offence for a Muslim to kill a cow as late as the 1920s; later, the penalty was reduced to ten years of imprisonment and still later to seven years (Section 219 ofRanbir Penal Code).[52] The Dogras found Srinagar deteriorating, filthy and overcrowded.[53] The city used to see several break-outs ofcholera, as well as earthquakes, floods, fires and famines. The famine of 1877–79 is said to have halved the city's population.[54] Consequently, due to the famine and forced labour in the villages, a considerable number of people migrated to Srinagar.[55]
Early 20th century painting ofSher Garhi Palace, the official residence of the Dogra rulers in Srinagar
1893 map of Srinagar and its surroundings
TheDarbar Move was introduced in 1872 byRanbir Singh, whereby the capital moved toJammu for six months during the winter[56] albeit later phased down byHari Singh who "fixed his headquarters permanently at Jammu". The Ministers and Heads of Departments continued to followed it, nevertheless, it was still a move which was resented by Kashmiris, particularly Pandits.[57] TheRaghunath Temple was also completed during Ranbir Singh's rule.[58] With a global decline in shawl trade during late 19th century, the shawl weaving class of the city was upended. Several changes were ushered in during the reign ofPratap Singh (1885–1925). ABritish Residency was established in Srinagar and direct British influence on the administration of the state grew. During this time, Srinagar, and in turn the Kashmir Valley, was connected to the rest of India via roads, which saw increased trade withPunjab. In 1886, a municipality was established for the city of Srinagar.[59] Works for sanitation and urban development undertaken by the municipality were often met with stiff opposition by the residents, who were averse to changes.[60] In the late 19th and early 20th century, modern tourism began to take hold in the city, especially on and around the Dal lake, with houseboats being built to accommodate British officers and their families who came in the summers seeking respite from the heat of theplains of northern India.[61] The Shergarhi Palace was greatly modified by the Dogras, who used it as their official residence in the city. Pratap Singh and his successorHari Singh also laid out several parks in the city. The city expanded rapidly between 1891 and 1941, partly due to increased migration from the countryside as a result of famines and due to improvements in sanitation and urban development as well as economic expansion, in particular the growth of the textile and tourism industries in the city.[62] ManyPunjabis also settled in Srinagar during this time for trade, commerce and administration.[63][64]
Srinagar emerged as the hub of political activity within the Kashmir valley during later Dogra rule. Kashmiris at large despised the Dogra rule and considered the dynasty an "alien rule".[65] Many Muslim leaders competed for influence and control over Muslim shrines in the city through which they sought to become representatives ofKashmiri Muslims.[66]Sheikh Abdullah, and hisNational Conference (NC), eventually succeeded in doing so.
Partition and Independence
In 1947, after the princely state'saccession to India following aninvasion of the state by Pakistani irregulars in the aftermath of thepartition of India, Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October to defend the city and the larger Kashmir valley.[67] The National Conference also established a popular people's militia in the city to aid the army in their defence of the territory.[68][69] Srinagar became the summer capital of the Indian state ofJammu and Kashmir when it was established in 1952.
Indian Prime MiniterJawaharlal Nehru attending a parade of NC's Kashmiri militias in Srinagar in 1948
A 1959 map of Srinagar city and its vicinity
In 1963–1964, the relic at the Hazratbal Shrine in Srinagar briefly disappeared, causing political turmoil.[70] Following this, the shrine was reconstructed between 1968 and 1979 in a Mughal-inspired style.[71]In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of theinsurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. The city saw increased violence against the minority Hindus—particularly theKashmiri Pandits—during the insurgency which resulted in their ultimateexodus.[72][73] Kashmiri Hindus constituted 8.39% of Srinagar's population in the 1981 census and 2.75% in the 2011 census.[74][75] TheGawakadal massacre took place in the city in January 1990, resulting in 50–100 deaths.[76] As a result, bunkers and checkpoints are found throughout the city, although their numbers have come down in the past few years as militancy has declined. Protests against Indian rule still occur with large demonstrations happening in 2008,2010, 2013, and2016.[77][78] Afterrevocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and the subsequentdevolution of the state into a union territory in August 2019, alockdown was imposed in Kashmir, including in Srinagar.[79]
Geography
The city is located on both the sides of theJhelum River, calledVyath in Kashmir. The river passes through the city and meanders through the valley, moving onward and deepening in theWular Lake. The city is known for its nine old bridges, connecting the two parts of the city.
Hokersar is a wetland situated near Srinagar. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds.
Hokersar is 14 km (8.7 mi) north of Srinagar, and is a world class wetland spread over 13.75 km2 (5.31 sq mi) including lake andmarshy area. It is the most accessible and well-known of Kashmir'swetlands which include Hygam, Shalibug and Mirgund. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years.[80]
Under theKöppen climate classification, Srinagar has a four-seasonhumid subtropical climate (Cfa) with moderately hot summers and cool winters. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Due to influence from Himalayanrain shadow andwestern disturbances, Srinagar has year-round precipitation; the spring season is the wettest while autumn is the driest. The region also has less rain from thesouthwest monsoon in the summer due to lying in the leeward side of the rain shadow which reduces these winds from the south. Winters are colder in the region than most areas with monsoon climates due to these influences and its elevation,[83] resulting in higher temperature variations similar tocontinental climates.
Moderate to heavy snowfall occurs in winter and thehighway connecting Srinagar with the rest of India faces frequent blockades due to icy roads, landslides and avalanches. Daily maximum temperatures average 7.1 °C (44.8 °F) in January and drop below freezing point at night. Summers are warm to hot, slightly moderated from its elevation, with a July daytime average of 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 697.5 millimetres (27.46 in). The highest temperature reliably recorded is 38.3 °C (100.9 °F) recorded on 10 July 1946, and the lowest is −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) recorded on 6 February 1895.[84]
Climate data for Srinagar (1991–2020, extremes 1893–2020)
In November 2011, theCity Mayors Foundation – an advocacy think tank – announced that Srinagar was the 92nd fastest growing urban areas in the world in terms of economic growth, based on actual data from 2006 onwards and projections to 2020.[93]
Tourism
Srinagar is one of several places that have been called the "Venice of the East".[94][95][96] Lakes around the city includeDal Lake – noted for itshouseboats – andNigeen Lake. Apart from Dal Lake and Nigeen Lake,Wular Lake andManasbal Lake both lie to the north of Srinagar. Wular Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.
Srinagar has someMughal gardens, forming a part of those laid by the Mughal emperors across the Indian subcontinent. Those of Srinagar and its close vicinity includeChashma Shahi (the royal fountains); Pari Mahal (the palace of the fairies);Nishat Bagh (the garden of spring);Shalimar Bagh; the Naseem Bagh.Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden is a botanical garden in the city, set up in 1969.[97] The Indian government has included these gardens under "Mughal Gardens of Jammu and Kashmir" in the tentative list for sites to be included inworld Heritage sites.
TheSher Garhi Palace houses administrative buildings from the state government.[98] Another palace of the Maharajas, theGulab Bhavan, has now become the Lalit Grand Palace hotel.[99]
The city is run by theSrinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) under the leadership of aMayor. The Srinagar district along with the adjoiningBudgam andGanderbal districts forms theSrinagar Parliamentary seat.Established in 1886, Srinagar Municipal Corporation comprises 74 wards and stretches over 227.34 sqkm within boundaries from North up to Pandach-Nagbal, North-East up to Harwan Bridge, East up to Zawoora-Zaafraan Colony, South-East up to Mahjoor Nagar-Natipora, South up to Baagh-i-Mahtaab, South-West up to Hamdaaniyah Colony, West up to Sozieth-Lawaypora and North-West up to Mujgund-Abdullahpora. SMC is organized into two wings - The deliberative wing (Mayor) and the Executive wing (Commissioner). The last elections were held in 2018.[101]
SMC is involved in Sanitation, Town Planning, Revenue, Birth and Death, Development and Grievances. SMC has been successful in its efforts of e-Governance, Collection and Disposal of Solid Waste, Beautification and Creation of Green Spaces and Improvement of Drainage Networks. The organization has, however, failed to prevent Dood Ganga Pollution for which the J&K Pollution Control Committee (JKPCC), on the direction of the National Green Tribunal (NGT), has imposed a penalty as Environmental Compensation of more than Rs 41.67 crores on Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC).[102]
Stray dog controversy
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2023)
Srinagar's city government attracted brief international attention in March 2008 when it announced a mass poisoning program aimed at eliminating the city's population of stray dogs.[103] Officials estimate that 100,000 stray dogs roam the streets of the city, which has a human population of just under 900,000. In a survey conducted by an NGO, it was found that some residents welcomed this program, saying the city was overrun by dogs, while critics contended that more humane methods should be used to deal with the animals.
The situation has become alarming with local news reports coming up at frequent intervals highlighting people, especially children being mauled by street dogs.[104]
As of 2011 census Srinagar urban agglomeration had a population of 1,264,202.[107] Both the city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 70%.[107][108] The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population.[107] Males constituted 53.0% and females 47% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1,000.[107][109]
The predominant religion of Srinagar is Islam with 96% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 2.75% of the population, nearly all migrant workers from outside Kashmir as most local Kashmiri Hindus fled the city in the 1990s.[110] The remaining population constitutes Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains.[111][112] Kashmiri Hindus constituted 21.9% of Srinagar's population as per 1891 census and 2.75% as per 2011 census.[75]
Srinagar is a station on the 119 km (74 mi) longBanihal-Baramulla line that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla to Srinagar,Anantnag andQazigund. The railway track also connects toBanihal across thePir Panjal mountains through a newly constructed 11 km long Banihal tunnel, and subsequently to the Indian railway network after a few years. It takes approximately 9 minutes and 30 seconds for a train to cross the tunnel. It is the longest rail tunnel in India. This railway system, proposed in 2001, is not expected to connect the Indian railway network until 2017 at the earliest, with a cost overrun of 55 billion INR.[116]The train also runs during heavy snow.
In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saintHamza Makhdoom onHari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of 300 million INR was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after theGulmarg Gondola.[119]
Boat
While popular since the 7th century, water transport is now mainly confined toDal Lake, whereshikaras (wooden boats) are used for local transport and tourism. There are efforts to revive transportation on the RiverJhelum.[120]
Culture
Like the territory ofJammu and Kashmir, Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around the city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley.
Places of worship
There are many religious holy places in Srinagar. They include:
Additional structures include theDastgeer Sahib shrine, Mazar-e-Shuhada,Roza Bal shrine,Khanqah of Shah Hamadan,Pathar Masjid ("The Stone Mosque"),Hamza Makhdoom shrine, tomb of the mother of Zain-ul-abidin, tomb of Pir Haji Muhammad, Akhun Mulla Shah Mosque, cemetery of Baha-ud-din Sahib, tomb and Madin Sahib Mosque at Zadibal.[122] Apart from these, dozens of smaller mosques are located all over the city. Several temples and temple ghats are located on the banks of river Jhelum in Srinagar, including Shurayar temple, Gadhadhar temple, Pratapishwar temple, Ganpatyar Ganesh temple, Purshyar temple, Sheshyar temple, Raghunath Mandir, Durga Patshala and Dhar temple.[123] Gurdwaras are located inRainawari, Amira Kadal, Jawahar Nagar, Mehjoor Nagar, Shaheed Gunj, Maharajpur and Indra Nagar areas of the city. There are three Christian churches in Srinagar.
The Sheikh Bagh Cemetery is a Christian cemetery located in Srinagar that dates from the British colonial era. The oldest grave in the cemetery is that of a British colonel from the 9th Lancers of 1850 and the cemetery is valued for the variety of persons buried there which provides an insight into the perils faced by British colonisers in India.[124] It was damaged by floods in 2014.[125] It contains a number of war graves.[126] The notable interments here areRobert Thorpe[127] andJim Borst.
Kashmiri cuisine is an important part of Srinagar’s Culture. Here, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes can be found. Wazwaan is a multi-course meal generally served at weddings. It is served on beautiful huge Copper plates called tream. Wazwaan is prepared by Male chefs.[128]
Kahwa is a form of green tea and is made by boiling green tea leaves with local saffron, cinnamon, cardamom and Kashmiri roses.
Harissa is winter delicacy here generally eaten during chilai kalan ( a period of extreme cold; 40 days from Dec 20 ).Garnished with two wazwaan delicacies along and topped with hot smoking mustard oil, this is the spicy slow cooked meat usually served with Kashmiri bread Tchot. It is prepared for hours usually overnight and generally eaten in the early cold winter.[129]
The city is home to theSher-i-Kashmir Stadium, where international cricket matches have been played.[133]The first international match was played in 1983 in which West Indies defeatedIndia and the last international match was played in 1986 in whichAustralia defeated India by six wickets. Since then no international matches have been played in the stadium due to the security situation (although the situation has now improved quite considerably).[citation needed] Srinagar has an outdoor stadium namelyBakshi Stadium for hosting football matches.[134] It is named afterBakshi Ghulam Mohammad. The city has a golf course namedRoyal Springs Golf Course, Srinagar located on the banks of Dal lake, which is considered one of the best golf courses of India.[135] Football is followed by the youth of Srinagar and theTRC Turf Ground is redeveloped for the particular sport in 2015. Srinagar is home to professionalfootball club ofI-League,Real Kashmir FC andDowntown Heroes FC ofI-League 2.[136] There are certain other sports being played but those are away from the main city like inPahalgam (Water rafting) andGulmarg (skiing).
^Despite several discrepancies, scholars identify this Ashoka of the Rajatarangini with theMauryan emperorAshoka.[26][27]
^HistorianMohammad Ishaq Khan states that this is due Srinagar's central location within the valley and the larger neighbourhood, and due to the presence of various water bodies around the city which provided protection.[33]
^The name, however, did not become obsolete and finds mention in several contemporary sources.[37]
^abThe application of the term "administered" to the various regions ofKashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by thetertiary sources (a) through (d), reflectingdue weight in the coverage. Although "controlled" and "held" are also applied neutrally to the names of the disputants or to the regions administered by them, as evidenced in sources (f) through (h) below, "held" is also considered politicised usage, as is the term "occupied," (see (i) below). (a)Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas. Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories."; (b)Pletcher, Kenneth,Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved16 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state."; (c)"Kashmir",Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006, p. 328,ISBN978-0-7172-0139-6 C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partlv by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947"; (d)Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003),Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M, Taylor & Francis, pp. 1191–,ISBN978-0-415-93922-5 Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute betw een India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China." (e)Talbot, Ian (2016),A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, pp. 28–29,ISBN978-0-300-19694-8 Quote: "We move from a disputed international border to a dotted line on the map that represents a military border not recognized in international law. The line of control separates the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir."; (f)Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "... China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region) since 1962."; (g)Bose, Sumantra (2009),Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, pp. 294, 291, 293,ISBN978-0-674-02855-5 Quote: "J&K: Jammu and Kashmir. The former princely state that is the subject of the Kashmir dispute. Besides IJK (Indian-controlled Jammu and Kashmir. The larger and more populous part of the former princely state. It has a population of slightly over 10 million, and comprises three regions: Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.) and AJK ('Azad" (Free) Jammu and Kashmir. The more populous part of Pakistani-controlled J&K, with a population of approximately 2.5 million. AJK has six districts: Muzaffarabad, Mirpur, Bagh, Kodi, Rawalakot, and Poonch. Its capital is the town of Muzaffarabad. AJK has its own institutions, but its political life is heavily controlled by Pakistani authorities, especially the military), it includes the sparsely populated "Northern Areas" of Gilgit and Baltistan, remote mountainous regions which are directly administered, unlike AJK, by the Pakistani central authorities, and some high-altitude uninhabitable tracts under Chinese control." (h)Fisher, Michael H. (2018),An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 166,ISBN978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Kashmir's identity remains hotly disputed with a UN-supervised "Line of Control" still separating Pakistani-held Azad ("Free") Kashmir from Indian-held Kashmir."; (i)Snedden, Christopher (2015),Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, p. 10,ISBN978-1-84904-621-3 Quote:"Some politicised terms also are used to describe parts of J&K. These terms include the words 'occupied' and 'held'."
^Everett-Heath, John (2020). "Srīnagar".Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names (6th ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN9780191905636.Founded c. 250 bc becoming known as the 'City of Shrī (or Laksmī)', the Hindu goddess of wealth and good fortune; ...
^Sharma, Suresh K. (1996).Encyclopaedia of Kashmir. Anmol Publications Pvt Limited. p. 137.ISBN978-81-7488-051-2.Shri Nagar or, as it is commonly called, Srinagar, is the chief town of the country . ' Shri ' means beauty or wealth of knowledge and ' nagar ' a city
^Kashmir. 1953. p. 36.Shri ' is said to be another name for Laxmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Beauty and ' nagari ' means the city . Hence ' Shrinagar ' is the city of wealth and beauty .
^Shafi, Aneesa (2002).Working Women in Kashmir: Problems and Prospects. APH Publishing. p. 189.ISBN978-81-7648-350-6.The name Srinagar which means the city of Sri or Lakshmi appears to have been assigned to the capital to commemorate the Buddhist Monastery built by Ashoka between Pandrethan and the nearby steep hill side at a distance of 2 miles from ...
^Khan 1978, p.2:"According to Kalhana, ancient Kashmir has had a number of capitals. The most important of these ancient cities was Srinagari, which was founded by Asoka in 250 B.C. 3 Srinagari, the city of Sri, an appellation of the goddess '. Lakshmi ...".
^Koul, Samsar Chand (1962).Srinagar and Its Environs: Kashmir, India. Lokesh Koul.Shri Nagar or, as it is commonly called, Srinagar, is the chief town of the country . ' Shri ' means beauty or wealth of knowledge and ' nagar ' a city . In ancient times this city was one of the chief seats of learning in Asia
^M. Monier Monier–Williams, "Śrīnagar", in:The Great Sanskrit–English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1899
^Sufi, G. M. D. (1974).Kashīr, Being a History of Kashmir from the Earliest Times to Our Own. Light & Life Publishers. p. 42.SRINAGAR * or Suryea Nagar, the City of the Sun, built by Rajah Pravarasene about the beginning of the 6th century, is the Capital of Kashmir, and a plan of it will be found in Montgomerie's Jamoo and Kashinir Map . It is situated about ...
^Rabbani 1981, p. 32: "Old Srinagar Kalhana, who lived in the beginning of the twelfth century, mentions in his Rajtarangni the city of Srinagar, a city in the south – east ... Shri here does not mean Surya or the son and it is a mistake to call Srinagar, the city of sun ."
^Kaul 2018, p.157: "(in footnote) In reality, it is the name Srinagar that stuck but the location of the modern-day Srinagar, the capital of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, is at the site of Pravarapura that was founded by King Pravarasena circa 6th century CE.".
^Bose, Sumantra (July 2009).Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-02855-5.As the uprising broke out across the Valley in early 1990, approximately one hundred thousand Pandits left their Valley homes for Jammu city and Delhi in a few weeks in February and March, in one of the most controversial episodes of the war in Kashmir."
^"Muslims wage huge Kashmir protest".Chicago Tribune. 23 August 2008.Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved1 March 2013.A Kashmiri Muslim watches a protest march Friday by hundreds of thousands of Muslims in Srinagar, Indian Kashmir's main city. It was the largest protest against Indian rule in the Himalayan region in more than a decade
^Hassan, Ishfaq-ul (12 February 2010)."Omar Abdullah plans metro in Jammu, Srinagar".DNA.Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved24 January 2015."We will soon have the feasibility of metro services in both cities analysed by experts. Ideally, we would like DMRC to send a team and prepare a project report," minister for urban development Nasir Aslam Wani said.
^Raina, Muzaffar (7 May 2012)."Boat down the Jhelum".The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. Archived fromthe original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved24 December 2013.
^"Hazratbal Shrine".travelinos.com. 2013.Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved23 January 2013.
Hamdani, Hakim Sameer (2021),The Syncretic Traditions of Islamic Religious Architecture of Kashmir (Early 14th–18th Century), Routledge,ISBN978-0-367-55009-7
Hewson, Eileen. (2008)Graveyards in Kashmir India. Wem, England: Kabristan Archives.ISBN978-1906276072
Wani, Muhammad Ashraf; Wani, Aman Ashraf (2023),The Making of Early Kashmir: Intercultural Networks and Identity Formation, Routledge,ISBN978-1-032-15830-3
![Srinagar lies in the Kashmir division (neon blue) of the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir (shaded tan) in the disputed Kashmir region.[1] =](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg)
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