Mustard seeds (top left) may be ground (top right) to make different kinds of mustard. These four mustards are: English mustard withturmeric colouring (centre left), a Bavarian sweet mustard (centre right), aDijon mustard (lower left), and a coarse French mustard made mainly from black mustard seeds (lower right).
The whole, ground, cracked, or bruised mustard seeds are mixed with water, vinegar,lemon juice, wine, or other liquids, salt, and often other flavourings andspices, to create a paste or sauce ranging in colour from bright yellow to dark brown. The seed itself has a strong,pungent, and somewhat bitter taste. The taste of mustard condiments ranges from sweet to spicy.
The English wordmustard derives fromAnglo-Normanmustarde andOld Frenchmostarde (Modern French:moutarde). This comes from Latinmustum ardens ("burning must"), which was a condiment made by mixing grapemust with ground mustard seeds to form a paste.[3] Generally calledSenf in German, mustard is also known in northern Germany by the similar wordMostrich.[4] First attested in English in the late 13th century, 'mustard' was used as a surname a century earlier.[5]
History
Evidence of mustard in the archaeological record is scarce since species in theBrassicaceae family do not accumulate silica and therefore do not producephytoliths.[6]
The earliest evidence of humans using mustard plants as food dates to thePre-Pottery Neolithic site ofJerf el Ahmar in Syria. Here ground mustard seeds identified as belonging to the genusSinapis were part of a "seed cake" that has been dated to between 9224 and 8753 BC.[7]
Archaeological excavations in theIndus Valley have revealed that mustard was cultivated there. That civilization existed until about 1850 BC.[8]
Mustard has been used in Africa and China for thousands of years. Mustard greens have been popularly consumed in China. Yellow mustard paste originated in China during theZhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), when the mustard seeds were ground and made into paste. It was often used in the royal courts during the Zhou Dynasty to help whet the appetite for the later courses in a meal.[9]
TheRomans mixed unfermented grape juice (the must) with ground mustard seeds (calledsinapis) to make ‘burning must’,mustum ardens.[3] A recipe for mustard appears inDe re coquinaria, the anonymously compiled Roman cookery book from the late fourth or early fifth century: the recipe calls for a mixture of ground mustard,pepper,caraway,lovage, grilledcoriander seeds,dill,celery,thyme,oregano,onion,honey,vinegar,fish sauce, andoil, and was intended as a glaze for spit-roastedboar.[10]
In the 10th century the monks ofSaint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris began their own production of mustard.[11] The first appearance of mustard-makers on the royal registers in Paris was in 1292.[12]Dijon, France, had become a recognized centre for mustard making by the 13th century.[11] The popularity of mustard in Dijon is evidenced by written accounts of guests consuming 320 litres (70 imp gal) of mustard creme in a single sitting at a gala held by theDuke of Burgundy in 1336.[13] In 1877 one of the most famous Dijon mustard makers,Grey-Poupon, was established as a partnership between Maurice Grey, a mustard-maker with a unique recipe containingwhite wine, and Auguste Poupon, his financial backer.[14] Their success was aided by the introduction of the first automatic mustard-making machine.[14] In 1937 Dijon mustard was granted anAppellation d'origine contrôlée.[11] Owing to its long tradition of mustard making Dijon is regarded as the mustard capital of France.[11]
The early use of mustard as a condiment in England is attested from the year 1390 in the bookThe Forme of Cury, which was written byKing Richard II's master cooks. It was prepared in the form of mustard balls—coarse-ground mustard seed combined with flour andcinnamon, moistened, rolled into balls and dried—which were easily stored and combined with vinegar or wine to make mustard paste as needed.[15] The town ofTewkesbury was well known for its high-quality mustard balls, originally made with ground mustard mixed with horseradish and dried for storage,[16] which were then exported to London and other parts of the country, and are even mentioned inWilliam Shakespeare's playKing Henry the Fourth, Part II.[17]
The use of mustard as ahot dog condiment is said to have been first seen in the United States at the1904 St. Louis World's Fair, when the bright-yellowFrench's mustard was introduced by the R.T. French Company.[18]
Mustard is most often used at the table as a condiment on cold and hot meats.[21] It is also used as an ingredient inmayonnaise,vinaigrette, marinades, andbarbecue sauce. It is also a popular accompaniment to hot dogs,pretzels, andbratwurst. In the Netherlands and Belgium, mustard is mainly used as a seasoning of croquettes,bitterballen, and cheese, and commonly used to make mustard soup, which includes mustard, cream,parsley,garlic, and pieces of saltedbacon.
Mustard can be added to dishes as a primary spice, which is popular in East Indian cuisine. Added to mixed vegetables or fishcurries, it can impart a unique flavour to some of the Indian recipes.
The many varieties of prepared mustards have a wide range of strengths and flavours, depending on the variety of mustard seed and the preparation method. Thebasic taste and "heat" of the mustard are determined largely by seed type, preparation, and ingredients.[28][29] Preparations from the white mustard plant (Sinapis alba) have a less pungent flavour than preparations of black mustard (Brassica nigra) or brown mustard (Brassica juncea). The temperature of the water and concentration of acids such as vinegar also determine the strength of a prepared mustard; hotter liquids and stronger acids denature the enzymes that give mustard its strong flavour. Thus, "hot" mustard is made with cold water, whereas using hot water produces a milder condiment, all else being equal.[30]
Hot table mustard can be prepared at home by mixing ground mustard powder to the desired consistency with water or an acidic liquid such as wine, vinegar, milk or beer, and letting it stand for ten minutes.[31] It is usually prepared immediately before a meal; mustard prepared with water, in particular, is more pungent, but deteriorates rapidly.[32]
Flavours
The mustard plant itself has a sharp, hot, pungent flavour.
Mixing ground mustard seeds with water causes a chemical reaction between two compounds in the seed: the enzymemyrosinase and variousglucosinolates such assinigrin andsinalbin. The myrosinase enzyme turns the glucosinolates into variousisothiocyanate compounds known generally asmustard oil. The concentrations of different glucosinolates in mustard plant varieties, and the different isothiocyanates that are produced, make different flavours and intensities.
Allyl isothiocyanate and4-hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate are responsible for the sharp, hot, pungent sensation in mustards and inhorseradish,wasabi, andgarlic, because they stimulate the heat- and acidity-sensingTRPVion channelTRPV1 onnociceptors (pain-sensing nerve cell) in the mouth and nasal passages. The heat of prepared mustard can dissipate with time.[33] This is due to gradual chemical break-up of 4-hydroxybenzyl isothiocyanate.
Thesulfoxide unit in sulforaphane is structurally similar to a thiol, which yields onion or garlic-like odours.
Prepared mustard condiment may also have ingredients giving salty, sour (vinegar), and sweet flavours. Turmeric is often added to commercially prepared mustards, mainly to give them a yellow colour.
Storage and shelf life
Prepared mustard is typically sold in glass jars, plastic bottles, or metal squeeze tubes.[34] Because of itsantibacterial properties and acidity, mustard does not require refrigeration for safety; it will not grow mould, mildew, or harmful bacteria.[35] Mustard can last indefinitely without becoming inedible or harmful, though it may dry out, lose flavour, or brown fromoxidation.[35] Mixing in a small amount of wine or vinegar may improve dried-out mustard. Some types of prepared mustard stored for a long time may separate, which can be corrected by stirring or shaking. If stored unrefrigerated for a long time, mustard can acquire a bitter taste.[36]
When whole mustard seeds are crushed and mixed with a liquid, an enzyme is activated that releases pungent sulfurous compounds, but they quickly evaporate. An acidic liquid, such as wine or vinegar, produces longer-lasting flavour by slowing the reaction.[32] However prepared mustard loses its pungency over time; the loss can be slowed by keeping a sealed container (opaque or in the dark) in a cool place or refrigerator.[37]
Varieties
Mustards come in a wide variety of preparations which vary in the preparation of the mustard seeds and which other ingredients are included. The mustard seed husks may be ground with the seeds, orwinnowed away after the initial crushing.
Plochman's mild yellow mustard, with typical bright yellow packaging
The most common mustard in the United States was introduced in 1904 byGeorge J. French as "cream salad mustard". In the US it is usually called "yellow mustard", or sometimes "hot dog" or "ballpark" mustard because of its traditional popularity onhot dogs atbaseball games. This variety has become popular in other countries, where it is sometimes referred to as "American mustard".
American yellow mustard is made from the less-piquant yellow mustard seeds, with a high proportion of vinegar. It is a very mild prepared mustard and has a bright yellow colour due to the inclusion ofturmeric powder. Yellow mustard is regularly used to top hot dogs, sandwiches, pretzels, and hamburgers. It is also an ingredient in manypotato salads,barbecue sauces, andsalad dressings.
Spicy brown mustard
Spicy brown mustard, also known asdeli-style mustard, is common in the United States. It includes some coarsely ground brown mustard seeds, giving it a speckled appearance and a spicier flavour than American yellow mustard. Some deli-style mustards also incorporatehorseradish for additional heat. A variety popular inLouisiana is calledCreole mustard, which is much coarser than most spicy brown types.
Dijon mustard originated in 1856, when Jean Naigeon ofDijon replaced the usual ingredient of vinegar withverjuice, the acidic "green" juice of unripe grapes.[38] Most Dijon mustards today containwhite wine rather than verjuice.
"Dijon mustard" is not aprotected food name. While mustard factories still operate in Dijon and adjoining towns, most Dijon mustard is now manufactured elsewhere.
English mustard
Prepared English mustard is bright yellow with a relatively thick consistency. It is made with a combination of yellow and brown seeds and is stronger than many other mustards as it has a low acid content. It is particularly suited to flavouring as a cooking ingredient but is also used as a table condiment for cold and hot meats. A woman based inDurham by the name of Mrs Clements was the first person to sell English mustard in a prepared format in 1720.[39][40] The best-selling brand of English mustard isColman's of Norwich. Colman's began by selling mustard powder in the company's trademark yellow tin, which it introduced in 1814.
French mustard is a dark brown, mild, tangy, and sweet mustard that, despite its name, is not French in origin. French mustard is particular to the UK and was invented by Colman's in 1936.[41] It became a popular accompaniment to steak in particular. Colman's ceased retail production of French mustard in 2001 afterUnilever, which now owns Colman's, was ordered to stop selling it by theEuropean Union following its takeover of the rival mustard-makerAmora–Maille in 2000.[42] Many British supermarkets still offer their own version of French mustard.
Kasundi
Kasundi (Bengali: কাসুন্দি) is the Bengali variety of mustard sauce or relish. It has the pungent paste of fermented mustard seeds, spices and sometimes dried mangoes, dried Indian plum and olives. Kasundi is popular as a dipping sauce inBengali cuisine.[43][44]
Fruit mustards
Fruit and mustard have been combined since theLombard creation ofmostarda di frutta in the 14th century.[13] Large chunks of fruit preserved in a sweet, hot mustard syrup were served with meat andgame, and were said to be a favourite of theDukes of Milan. Traditional variations of fruit mustards include apple mustard (traditional inMantua and very hot),quincemostarda (ormostarda vicentina, mild and with a jam-like appearance), and cherry mustard. In various areas of Italy, the termmostarda refers to sweet condiments made with fruit, vegetables, andmosto, grape juice that gets simmered until syrupy.
Honey mustard is a blend of mustard and honey.[45] It is commonly used both on sandwiches and as a dip for finger foods such aschicken fingers. It can also be combined with vinegar or olive oil to make a salad dressing.
Hot mustard
The term "hot mustard" is used for mustards prepared to bring out the natural piquancy of the mustard seeds.[33] This is enhanced by using more pungent black or brown mustard seeds rather than yellow mustard seeds, and the low acidity of the liquid used.[33][29]Karashi is a variety of hot mustard originating in Japan. Hot mustard is also a common condiment inChinese andKorean cuisine.[46][47]
Hot pepper mustard
Chilli peppers of various strengths are used to make a variety of mustards more piquant than plain mustard. Chilis or ahot sauce such asSriracha made from chilis are added to mustards of different base styles such as yellow mustard, brown mustard, or spirit mustards.
Sweet mustard is sweetened with sugar. It is common inBavaria, where it is typically served withWeißwurst orLeberkäse.Moutarde douce is a sweetened mustard usually containing other herbs found in France, though less common than Dijon style. Other types of sweet mustards are known in Austria and Switzerland. Sweet mustard fromTecuci, Romania, is a variety very popular in Southeastern Europe and is suitable for grilled meats such asmititei.
Whole-grain mustard
Whole-grain mustard from France
In whole-grain mustard, also known as granary mustard, the seeds are mixed whole with other ingredients. Different flavours and strengths can be achieved through different blends of mustard seed species.Groningen mustard and others are examples of mustards with partially ground grains.
Allergies
A strong mustard can make theeyes water, and sting the tongue, palate, and throat. Home-made mustards may be hotter and more intensely flavoured than most commercial preparations.[49]
Any part of the mustard plant can also, rarely, causeallergic reactions in some people, includinganaphylaxis. In theEuropean Union labelling the presence of mustard inpackaged food is compulsory, either as an ingredient or even as unintended contamination in trace amounts. The Regulation (EC) 1169/2011[50] on food-labelling lists 14 allergens, including mustard, the presence of which in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctivetypography (i.e. bold, capitals).
^Antol, Marie Nadine.The Incredible Secrets of Mustard: The Quintessential Guide to the History, Lore, Varieties, and Healthful Benefits of Mustard. Avery Publishing Group, 1999, p. 16.
^See Irma S. Rombauer & Marion R. Becker,Joy of Cooking. Bobbs-Merrill, 1975, p. 583; Irma S. Rombauer, Marion Rombauer Becker & Ethan Becker,Joy of Cooking, Scribner, 1997, p. 71.
^Church, Roy; Clark, Christine (2003). "Purposive Strategy or Serendipity? Development and Diversification in Three Consumer Product Companies, 1918-39: J. & J. Colman, Reckitt & Sons, and Lever Bros./Unilever".Business History.45 (1):23–59.doi:10.1080/713999294.S2CID154062731.
