 | This articleneeds more completecitations forverification. Please helpadd missing citation information so that sources are clearly identifiable.(June 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
| This article includes alist of references,related reading, orexternal links,but its sources remain unclear because it lacksinline citations. Please helpimprove this article byintroducing more precise citations.(June 2025) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Thespatha was a type of straight and longsword, measuring between 0.5 and 1 metre (20 and 40 inches), with a handle length of between 18 and 20 centimetres (7 and 8 inches), in use in the territory of theRoman Empire during the 1st to 6th centuries AD. Later swords, from the 7th to 10th centuries, like theViking swords, are recognizable derivatives and sometimes subsumed under the termspatha.
The Romanspatha was used in war and ingladiatorial fights. Thespatha of literature appears in the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD as a weapon used by presumablyCelticauxiliaries and gradually became a standardheavy infantry weapon by the 3rd century AD, relegating thegladius to use as alight infantry weapon. Thespatha apparently replaced thegladius in the front ranks, giving the infantry more reach when thrusting. While the infantry version had a long point, versions carried by thecavalry had a rounded tip that prevented accidental stabbing of the cavalryman's own foot or horse.
Archaeologically many instances of thespatha have been found in Britain and Germany. It was used extensively byGermanic warriors. It is unclear whether it came from thegladius or the longerCeltic swords, or whether it served as a model for the variousarming swords and Viking swords of Europe. Thespatha remained popular throughout theMigration Period. It evolved into theknightly sword of theHigh Middle Ages by the 12th century.
The word comes from theLatinspatha,[1] which derives from theGreek wordσπάθη (spáthē), meaning "any broad blade, of wood or metal" but also "broad blade of a sword".[2]
The Greek wordσπάθη was used in the middlearchaic period for various types ofIron Age swords. The word does not appear inHomeric Greek, but it is mentioned in the works ofAlcaeus of Mytilene (sixth century BC)[3] andTheophrastus (fourth century BC).[4]
It is likely thatspatha is theromanization of theDoric Greek word σπάθα (spáthā).[5] The word survives in Modern Greek asσπάθη andσπαθί. The Latin word became the Frenchépée, Catalan and Occitanespasa, Portuguese and Spanishespada, Italianspada, Romanianspadă and Albanianshpata, all meaning "sword". The English wordspatula comes from Latinspat(h)ula, the diminutive ofspatha. Englishspade, from Old Englishspadu orspædu, is the Germaniccognate, derived from aCommon Germanic*spadō, ultimately from aProto-Indo-European stem*sph2-dh-.[6]
During theSecond Punic War,Celticmercenaries introduced thespatha to theRoman army. Thespatha was a weapon used by thecavalrymen, while theauxiliaries andlegionaries of the infantry used thegladius instead.[7] Eventually, the Roman infantry would adopt thespatha in the 2nd century.[7] It was a very versatile sword, undergoing many changes from its origins inGaul to its usage in theRoman military. The blade was 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 inches) long.
Thepattern welding was used to strengthen the core of the blade. The appearance of the metal was enhanced due toinlay and contrasting metals. The sword also incorporated one or two forged fullers, thus making thespatha a strong and lightweight blade.[7]
Thespatha was first introduced to the Romans byCeltic mercenaries during theSecond Punic War. The Celts would have used weaponry and armor from their homeland, and one of the Celtic weapons would have been thespatha.[7] Although many believe that thespatha was adopted by the Romans due to contact withGermania, this is not true.[7]
The earliergladius sword was gradually replaced by thespatha from the late 2nd to the 3rd century AD. From the early 3rd century, legionaries and cavalrymen began to wear their swords on the left side, perhaps because thescutum had been abandoned and thespatha had replaced thegladius.[8]
In the imperial period, the Romans adopted the original Greek term,spáthē (σπάθη), asspatha, which still carried the general meaning of any object considered long and flat.[9]Spatha appears, first inPliny and then inSeneca, with different meanings: a spatula, a metal-working implement, a palm-leaf and so on.[10] There is no hint of any native Roman sword called aspatha.
Referring to an actual sword, the term first appears in the pages of Tacitus with reference to an incident of theearly empire.[11] The British king,Caratacus, having rebelled, found himself trapped on a rocky hill, so that if he turned one way he encountered thegladii of the legionaries, and if the other, thespathae of the auxiliaries. There is no indication in Tacitus that they were cavalry.
In 2023, threespathae—two of the Pompeii type and one possibly of the Fontillet type—were discovered stashed alongside other weapons in theCave of the Swords nearEin Gedi in Israel'sJudaean Desert. These swords were likely hidden by Jewish rebels who had taken them as booty, possibly for their own use, during theBar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE).[12]
The next mention ofspathae is in the 5th century, byVegetius, now as a weapon carried by infantry.
Thespatha remained in use in theByzantine Empire and itsarmy. In the Byzantine court,spatharios (σπαθάριος), or "bearer of thespatha", was a mid-levelcourt title. Other variants deriving from it wereprotospatharios,spatharokandidatos andspatharokoubikoularios, the latter reserved foreunuchs. One of the more famousspatharokandidatoi wasHarald Hardrada.[13]
The term "Roman Iron Age" refers approximately to the time of theRoman Empire innorthern Europe, which was outside the jurisdiction of the empire, but, judging from the imported Roman artifacts, was influenced by Roman civilization. One source of artifacts from this period are the bogs ofSchleswig,Holstein andDenmark. Objects were deliberately broken and thrown into the bogs in the belief that they could go with a deceased chief on his voyage to a better place.
A cache of 90 swords was found atNydam Mose in Denmark in 1858. They were in the form of thespatha and therefore have been classified as "Roman swords". They are dated to the 3rd to 4th centuries. Many connect the Nydam cache with the sword ofBeowulf, who was supposed to be a contemporary.[14]
WhenGermanic tribes began toinvade theRoman Empire during the 3rd and 4th centuries they would come into contact with thespatha.[7] Surviving examples of theseGermanic Iron Age swords have blades measuring between 71 and 81 cm (28 and 32 in) in length and 43 to 61 mm (1+3⁄4 to2+3⁄8 in) in width. These single-handed weapons of war sport atang 10 to 13 cm (4 to 5 in) long and have very little taper in their blades. They usually end in a rounded tip.
 | This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(July 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Perhaps the most recognisable descendants of thespathae were theViking Age blades. These swords took on a much more acute distal taper and point. They had deepfullers running their length, yet still had single-handedhilts which sported a uniquely shapedpommel, flat at the grip side and roughly triangular early on, with the flat curving to fit the hand later.[citation needed] While the pattern of hilt and blade design of this type might readily be called a "Viking sword", to do so would be to neglect the widespread popularity it enjoyed. All overcontinental Europe between the 8th and 10th centuries, this design and its variations could be found. Many of the best blades were ofFrankish origin, given hilts in local centres. These blades had significantly better balance.
DuringNorman times, the blade's length increased by around 10 cm (4 in), and the hilt changed significantly. Instead of the Brazil-nut pommel, a thick disc-shaped pommel was attached "on-edge" to the bottom of the iron hilt. In addition the upper guard grew substantially from the near-absent design predating it. Also, the blades tended to taper slightly less than those found in the time of theVikings.
Jan Petersen, inDe Norske Vikingsverd (The Norwegian Viking Swords, 1919), introduced the most widely used classification of swords of the Viking Age, describing 26 types labelled A–Z. In 1927,R. E. M. Wheeler condensed Petersen's typology into a simplified typology of nine groups, numbered I–IX.
The transition from the Viking Agespatha-inspired sword to theHigh Medievalknightly sword took place between the 10th and 11th centuries. The main development was the growth of the front handguard into a fullcross-guard, and the reduction of the typical Viking Age lobatedpommel into simpler brazil nut or disc shapes. Thesword ofOtto III, (total length 95.5 cm), preserved as a relic inEssen, is an example of the emerging arming sword, although it has been encrusted with decorations during the ensuing centuries.[15]
