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| Spanish conquest of the Muisca | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theSpanish conquest of New Granada | |||||||||
 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the leader of conquest expedition from Santa Marta to the Muisca territories | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Conquistadorsof theSpanish Empire | Guecha warriors of theMuisca | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Gonzalo de Quesada Hernán de Quesada Gonzalo Suárez Rendón Baltasar Maldonado | Tisquesusa † Sagipa (POW) Eucaneme (POW) Quiminza  Sugamuxi (POW) Saymoso † | ||||||||
| Units involved | |||||||||
| 162 | >30,000[citation needed] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown | Unknown | ||||||||
 |
| Part ofa series on |
| Muisca culture |
|---|
| Topics |
| Geography |
| The Salt People |
| Main neighbours |
| History andtimeline |
TheSpanish conquest of the Muisca took place from 1537 to 1540. TheMuisca were the inhabitants of the centralAndean highlands ofColombia before the arrival of the Spanishconquistadors. They were organised in a looseconfederation of differentrulers; thepsihipqua ofMuyquytá, with his headquarters inFunza, thehoa ofHunza, theiraca of the sacred City of the SunSugamuxi, theTundama ofTundama, and several other independentcaciques. The most important rulers at the time of the conquest werepsihipquaTisquesusa,hoaEucaneme,iracaSugamuxi andTundama in the northernmost portion of their territories. The Muisca were organised in small communities of circular enclosures (ca in their languageMuysccubbun; literally "language of the people"), with a central square where thebohío of thecacique was located. They were called "Salt People" because of their extraction ofsalt in various locations throughout their territories, mainly inZipaquirá,Nemocón, andTausa. For the main part self-sufficient in their well-organisedeconomy, the Muisca traded with the European conquistadors valuable products asgold,tumbaga (acopper-silver-gold alloy), andemeralds with their neighbouringindigenous groups. In theTenza Valley, to the east of theAltiplano Cundiboyacense where the majority of the Muisca lived, they extracted emeralds inChivor andSomondoco. The economy of the Muisca was rooted in theiragriculture with main productsmaize,yuca,potatoes, and various other cultivations elaborated on elevated fields (in their language calledtá). Agriculture had started around 3000 BCE on the Altiplano, following thepreceramicHerrera Period and a long epoch ofhunter-gatherers since the late Pleistocene. The earliestarchaeological evidence of inhabitation in Colombia, and one of the oldest in South America, has been found inEl Abra, dating to around 12,500 yearsBP.
The main part of the Muisca civilisation was concentrated on theBogotá savanna, a flat high plain in theEastern Ranges of the Andes, far away from theCaribbean coast. The savanna was an ancient lake, that existed until the latestPleistocene and formed a highly fertile soil for their agriculture. The Muisca were a deeplyreligious civilisation with apolytheistic society and an advancedastronomical knowledge, which was represented in their complexlunisolarcalendar. Men andwomen had specific and different tasks in their relatively egalitarian society; while the women took care of the sowing,preparation of food, the extraction of salt, and the elaboration ofmantles and pottery, the men were assigned to harvesting,warfare, andhunting. Theguecha warriors were tasked with the defence of the Muisca territories, mainly against their western neighbours; theMuzo ("Emerald People") and the bellicosePanche. To impress their enemies, the Muisca warriors woremummies of important ancestors on their backs, while fighting. In their battles, the men used spears,poisoned arrows, and golden knives.
Although gold deposits were not abundant on the Altiplano, through trading the Muisca obtained large amounts of the precious metal which they elaborated into fineart, of which theMuisca raft and the manytunjos (offer pieces) were the most important. The Muisca raft pictures the initiation ritual of the newzipa, that took place inLake Guatavita. When the Spanish who resided in the coastal city ofSanta Marta, founded byRodrigo de Bastidas in 1525, were informed about thislegend, a large expedition in the quest for thisEl Dorado (city or man of gold) was organised in the spring of 1536.
A delegation of more than 900 men left the tropical city of Santa Marta and went on a harsh expedition through the heartlands of Colombia in search ofEl Dorado and the civilisation that produced all this precious gold. The leader of the first and main expedition underSpanish flag wasGonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, with his brotherHernán second in command.[1] Several other soldiers were participating in the journey, who would later becomeencomenderos and take part in the conquest of other parts of Colombia. Other contemporaneous expeditions into the unknown interior of the Andes, all searching for the mythical land of gold, were starting from laterVenezuela, led byBavarian and other German conquistadors and from the south, starting in the previously foundedKingdom of Quito in what is nowEcuador.
The conquest of the Muisca started in March 1537, when the greatly reduced troops of de Quesada entered Muisca territories inChipatá, the first settlement they founded on March 8. The expedition went further inland and up the slopes of theAltiplano Cundiboyacense into laterBoyacá andCundinamarca. The towns ofMoniquirá (Boyacá),Guachetá, andLenguazaque (Cundinamarca) were founded before the conquistadors arrived at the northern edge of theBogotá savanna inSuesca. En route towards the domain ofzipaTisquesusa, the Spanish foundedCajicá andChía. In April 1537 they arrived atFunza, where Tisquesusa was beaten by the Spanish. This formed the onset for further expeditions, starting a month later towards the easternTenza Valley and the northern territories ofzaqueQuemuenchatocha. On August 20, 1537, thezaque was submitted in hisbohío inHunza. The Spanish continued their journey northeastward into theIraka Valley, where theiracaSugamuxi fell to the Spanish troops and theSun Temple was accidentally burned by two soldiers of the army of de Quesada in early September.
Meanwhile, other soldiers from the conquest expedition went south and conqueredPasca and other settlements. The Spanish leader returned with his men to the Bogotá savanna and planned new conquest expeditions executed in the second half of 1537 and first months of 1538. On August 6, 1538, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada foundedBogotá as the capital of theNew Kingdom of Granada, named after his home region ofGranada, Spain. That same month, on August 20, thezipa who succeeded his brother Tisquesusa upon his death;Sagipa, allied with the Spanish to fight thePanche, eternal enemies of the Muisca in the southwest. In the Battle of Tocarema, the allied forces claimed victory over the bellicose western neighbours. In late 1538, other conquest undertakings resulted in more founded settlements in the heart of the Andes. Two other expeditions that were taking place at the same time; of De Belalcázar from the south and Federmann from the east, reached the newly founded capital and the three leaders embarked in May 1539 on a ship on the Magdalena River that took them to Cartagena and from there back to Spain. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada had installed his younger brother Hernán as new governor of Bogotá and the latter organised new conquest campaigns in search ofEl Dorado during the second half of 1539 and 1540. His captain Gonzalo Suárez Rendón foundedTunja on August 6, 1539, and captainBaltasar Maldonado, who had served under de Belalcázar, defeated thecacique ofTundama at the end of 1539. The lastzaqueAquiminzaque was decapitated in early 1540, establishing the new rule over the formerMuisca Confederation.
Knowledge of the conquest expeditions in Muisca territories has been provided and compiled byGonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, main conquistador, andscholarsPedro de Aguado,Juan Rodríguez Freyle,Juan de Castellanos,Pedro Simón,Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita,Joaquín Acosta,Liborio Zerda, andJorge Gamboa Mendoza.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]
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Thepre-Columbian history of theAltiplano Cundiboyacense started around 12,500 yearsBP with the oldest human evidence found atEl Abra, nearZipaquirá.[9] Otherarchaeological sites of thepreceramic areTequendama,Tibitó,Checua andAguazuque. At the time of the arrival of the first hunter-gatherers, the area was still populated byPleistocene megafauna, such asCuvieronius,Haplomastodon andEquus amerhippus.[10]
During the Herrera Period, that is commonly defined as from 800 BCE to 800 CE, theagriculture that started before was further developed. Evidence for this has been uncovered in among others theThomas van der Hammen Reserve, named afterDutchgeologist andbotanistThomas van der Hammen.[11] It was in the Herrera Period thatpottery became widespread and from the 5th century CE onwards, the habit ofmummification was common for the higher classes.[12][13][14]
Archaeological evidence of the Herrera Period has been found in numerous places on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, among others inSopó,[15]Soacha,[16]Usme,[17]Iza,Gámeza,[18]Facatativá (Piedras del Tunjo Archaeological Park),Moniquirá (El Infiernito),Chía,[19]Chita,Chiscas,Soatá,Jericó,Sativasur,Covarachía,Sativanorte andEl Cocuy.[20]
The site in Soacha is one of the most important finds from the Herrera Period, dating from 400 BCE onwards, into the age of the Muisca.[21][22] At the site, the remains of 2200 individual people, 274 completeceramic pots,stone tools, seeds ofcotton,maize,beans andcuruba, 634 fragmented and intactspindles and 100tunjos not used for offerings were found.[22]
The Muisca Confederation is the accepted name for the territories inhabited by theMuisca on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense and neighbouringTenza andUbaque valleys to the east. The confederation ofrulers, with as most important thezipa ofBacatá,zaque ofHunza,iraca ofSugamuxi and theTundama ofTundama, among various independentcaciques, covered an area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi).[23][note 1] Population estimates range from 300,000 to 2,000,000 inhabitants.[24] The Muisca were mainly a society based onagriculture on the fertile soils of the valleys of the Altiplano, the result ofPleistocene lacustrine sediments.[25] Called "The Salt People", they were also known as producing salt fromhalite brines extracted from salt mines inZipaquirá,Nemocón andTausa, an activity that was the task of theMuisca women exclusively and had started in the Herrera Period around 250 BCE.[26][27] Trading of various raw products, such as cotton, that grew in lower altitude terrains to the north, east and west of the Altiplano, produced the basis for theirart andcloth and ceramics production. The Muisca were unique in South American civilisations in their production of golden coins, calledtejuelo.[28]
Other than the other great civilisations ofpre-ColumbianAmericas, such as theAztec,Maya andInca, the people did not construct large stonearchitecture, yet built theirbohíos andtemples of clay, wooden poles and reed in small communities on artificially elevated areas.[29][30] The Muisca adored various deities, of which the Moon (personalised byChía) and her husband, the Sun (solar godSué) were the most important.[31] Two main temples were constructed to honour these deities; inChía theMoon Temple and in sacred City of the SunSugamuxi theSun Temple respectively. Both temples were built according toastronomical parameters.[32] Most of the other sacred sites were natural in character; the many lakes that existed on the Altiplano;Iguaque,Suesca,Fúquene,Tota, theSiecha Lakes, and the most important;Lake Guatavita.[33]
It was in this circular lake, located at an altitude of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) within the boundaries of present-day municipality ofSesquilé, that the initiation ritual of the newzipa was performed. This ceremony, where the newzipa would cover himself ingold dust and from a raft would jump into the ice cold waters, is represented in the famousMuisca raft. The festivities of this ritual were surrounded withmusic, singing anddances and accompanied by large quantities ofchicha, the indigenous alcoholic beverage made of fermentedmaize.[34] Also during the construction of the houses, overseen by their godNencatacoa, the people drank chicha.[35] The golden ritual formed the basis for the -not so much- legend ofEl Dorado; the "Man of Gold", also interpreted as "The City of Gold". The specialisedgoldworking of the Muisca was known far outside the Confederation and many golden offer pieces (tunjos) have been found in various sites, making them themost common objects in museums around the world.[36][37][38] The area of the Muisca did not contain many gold deposits and their gold was obtained mostly throughtrade with their neighbours at the frequent markets they organised in various settlements throughout the Altiplano.[39][40][41][42]
Emeralds were other precious pieces both extracted within the Confederation in theTenza Valley and traded with their western neighbours, theMuzo, called "The Emerald People".[43] The legend ofEl Dorado, the fine goldworking, abundance of salt and emeralds, and the advanced status of the Muisca society formed the main motive for the Spanish conquistadors to leave the relative safety of Santa Marta and commence the strenuous expedition inland.[7]
The first time the mainland of the continent ofSouth America was sighted by European eyes, was at the third voyage ofChristopher Columbus in August 1498. During the first half of the month, he explored theParia Peninsula, presently part of easternVenezuela. On this voyage, Columbus saw the mouth of theOrinoco River, which water mass he rightly interpreted as a sign the continent must be large. The Orinoco Riverdrainage basin extends to the west into the terrain of the Muisca, via theriversMeta and its tributariesLengupá,Upía andCusiana. Although the country of Colombia is named after Columbus, he never saw the land pertaining to present-day Colombia, while on his fourth and final voyage, he landed inPanama that until 1903 was part of the current republic.
The second time the Orinoco was spotted, was byAmerigo Vespucci who took part in the first expedition that landed on Colombian soil, that ofAlonso de Ojeda. Vespucci, as part of a Portuguese expedition, went east and south from the Orinoco and De Ojeda with three ships went west. The first Colombian landmass sighted by De Ojeda was thepeninsula ofLa Guajira in late August 1499. De Ojeda misinterpreted this part of later Colombia as anisland, that he calledCoquivacoa (currently known asCabo de la Vela; "Cape of Sails").
De Ojeda's second voyage commenced in January 1502 and following the same route as his first, he landed on the Colombian mainland on May 3, 1502, founding the first colony in South America;Santa Cruz today part ofBahia Honda. The colony didn't last more than three months due to various factors. Theindigenous Wayuu resisted ferociously and the Spanish explorers couldn't find enough food and fresh water in the barrendesert region to maintain the colony. De Ojeda set sail towardsSanto Domingo inHispaniola. His failure to establish a colony for theSpanish Crown condemned him to pay large sums upon arrival in Hispaniola. This made it impossible for him to perform new expeditions for some years.[44]
While De Ojeda was underway to Colombia, his rival Christopher Columbus started his fourth voyage, with thirty ships fromCádiz on May 11, 1502. Columbus landed on the previously unknown island ofMartinique on June 15 and he continued his journey northwestward to reach Santo Domingo on June 29. As he was denied port in the Caribbean capital, Columbus sailed in the direction ofJamaica and from there toGuanaja, one of theBay Islands off the coast of laterHonduras, arriving one month later. On August 14, 1502, he landed as first European on the mainland ofCentral America, at a settlement that would later be calledPuerto Castilla. Over the course of the next two months, Columbus explored the CaribbeanMosquito Coast of later Honduras,Nicaragua andCosta Rica, reaching the bay ofAlmirante on October 16. In this region, currently known asBocas del Toro, he made first contact with theChibcha-speakingNgäbe people, learning about the resources of gold. After getting in conflict with thecacique of the area,El Quibían, Columbus and his men had to flee the region and set sail back to Hispaniola on April 16, 1503. After sighting theCayman Islands on May 10, he arrived inJamaica on June 25.
Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, who had sailed to theNew World on February 13, 1502, with 32 ships, the biggest fleet of the time, had becomegovernor of Hispaniola. A distant relative of him, the 19-year youngHernán Cortés fromMedellín, Spain, left for Hispaniola in 1504. He would later become famous as theconquistador who brought down theAztec Empire. Cortés's mother (Catalina Pizarro Altamirano) was related to the family ofFrancisco Pizarro, the later conquistador of theInca Empire.[45]
After unsuccessful attempts to establish Spanish settlements in La Guajira and San Sebastián de Urabá (close to the present municipalityNecoclí)[46] on January 20, 1510, the first remaining settlement wasTurbaco, founded on December 8, 1510.[47] The first cities founded on Colombian soil that still exist today, wereSanta Marta (and its northern corregimientoTaganga) on July 29, 1525, byRodrigo de Bastidas andCartagena, then calledSan Sebastián de Cartagena byPedro de Heredia on June 1, 1533.[48][49] Shortly before Cartagena,Mahates was founded on April 17, 1533.[50]Malambo,Atlántico was discovered in 1529 by Jerónimo de Melo andSilos,Norte de Santander byAmbrosius Ehinger in 1530.[49] In 1535,Tolú andSincelejo,Sucre were founded byAlonso de Heredia on July 25, and Antonio de la Torre y Miranda on October 4 respectively.[49] In the south of what is now Colombia,Yumbo,Valle del Cauca was founded in 1536 by Miguel Muñoz and in the same yearCali (July 25) bySebastián de Belalcázar. The latter also foundedPopayán in December of the same year.[49]Jamundí, south ofCali, was founded on March 23 byJuan de Ampudia andPedro de Añasco.[51]
| Settlement bold is extant | Department | Date | Year | Founder(s) | Notes | Map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Santa Cruz (Bahía Honda) | La Guajira | 3 May | 1502 | Alonso de Ojeda | [44] |  |
| San Sebastián de Urabá (Necoclí) | Antioquia | 20 January | 1510 | Alonso de Ojeda | [46] |  |
| Santa María la Antigua del Darién (Unguía) | Chocó | September | 1510 | Vasco Núñez de Balboa | [52] |  |
| Turbaco | Bolívar | 8 December | 1510 | Alonso de Ojeda Juan de la Cosa Diego de Niquesa | [47] |  |
| Santa Marta Taganga | Magdalena | 29 July | 1525 | Rodrigo de Bastidas | [49] |  |
| Mahates | Bolívar | 17 April | 1533 | Pedro de Heredia | [50] |  |
| Cartagena | Bolívar | 1 June | 1533 | Pedro de Heredia | [49] |  |
| Tolú | Sucre | 25 July | 1535 | Alonso de Heredia | [49] |  |
| Sincelejo | Sucre | 4 October | 1535 | Alonso de Heredia | [49] |  |
| Jamundí | Valle del Cauca | 23 March | 1536 | Juan de Ampudia Pedro de Añasco | [51] |  |
The first expedition into the terrains controlled by the Muisca started on April 6, 1536. The army of conquistadors was led bymarranoGonzalo Jiménez de Quesada with his brotherHernán Pérez de Quesada second in command. Other notable captains and soldiers wereGonzalo Suárez Rendón,Juan de San Martín,Lázaro Fonte (who would become the lover ofZoratama),Martín Galeano,Bartolomé Camacho Zambrano,Ortún Velázquez de Velasco,Antonio de Lebrija,Gonzalo Macías,Juan de Céspedes, andJuan Maldonado.[53] Historians usually divide the journey, filled with difficulty in two stages: the first from Santa Marta to Barrancabermeja, and the second from Barranca to the Muisca territory.[7]
Around 800 soldiers left Santa Marta on April 5, 1536, of whom only 173 survived when the troops reached Muisca territory, 11 months later. Expedition from the east and southwest were undertaken simultaneously.[54]
| Name leader in bold | Nationality | Years active | Natives encountered bold is conquered | Year of death | Image | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada | Granadian | 1536–39 1569–72 | Tairona, Chimila (2) zipa zaque Panche, Pijao (2) | 1579 |  | [1][53][54] |
| Juan Maldonado | Castilian | 1536–39 1569–72 | Tairona, Chimila (2), Muisca, Panche, Pijao (2) | [53][note 2] | ||
| Gonzalo Macías | Castilian | 1536–39 1569–71 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Pijao (2) | 1571~ | [53][55] | |
| Hernán Pérez de Quesada | Granadian | 1536–39 1540–42 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Lache (2), Chitarero (3), Achagua, Guayupe,Choque,Inga, | 1544 | [1][53] | |
| Gonzalo Suárez Rendón | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) zipa,zaque Panche | 1590 | [1][53][56] | |
| Martín Galeano | Castilian | 1536–39 1540–45 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Muzo | 1554~ | [1][53][57] | |
| Lázaro Fonte | Castilian | 1536–39 1540–42 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Lache (2), Guayupe,Choque † | 1542 | [1][53] | |
| Juan de Céspedes | Castilian | 1525–43 | Tairona, Chimila (1, 2) Muisca Panche (1), Sutagao (1) | 1573 or 1576 | [1][53][58][59] | |
| Juan de San Martín | Castilian | 1536–39 1540–45 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Guane, Achagua | [1][53] | ||
| Antonio de Lebrija | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche | 1540 | [53] | |
| Ortún Velázquez de Velasco | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche, Chitarero (2) | 1584 | [53][60] | |
| Bartolomé Camacho Zambrano | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche | [53] | ||
| Antonio Díaz de Cardoso | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche | [53] | ||
| Pedro Fernández de Valenzuela | Castilian | 1536–39 | Tairona, Chimila (2) Muisca Panche | [53] | ||
| 640+ conquistadors ~80% | mostly Castilian | April 1536 - April 1537 | Diseases,jaguars, crocodiles, climate, various indigenouswarfare | 1536 1537 |  | [1][53] |
In the years around the main expedition of the de Quesadas, two other major exploration routes into the heart of Colombia were followed; one under German order, headed by Federmann from the northeast, and one led by de Belalcázar from the south.
| Name leader in bold | Nationality | Years active | Natives encountered bold is conquered | Year of death | Image | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sebastián de Belalcázar | Castilian | 1514–39 | Paez, Pijao (1), Sutagao (1) Muisca | 1551 | [1][54] | |
| Baltasar Maldonado | Castilian | 1534–52 | Inca, Paez, Pijao (1),Quimbaya,Pantágora Conquest of Tundama Choque,Inga,Kamëntsá | 1552 | [61][62][63][64] | |
| Nikolaus Federmann | Bavarian | 1535–39 | Motilon (2), Chitarero (1), U'wa, Lache (1) Muisca | 1542 | [1][54] | |
| Miguel Holguín y Figueroa | Castilian | 1535–39 | Motilon (2), Chitarero (1), U'wa, Lache (1) Muisca | 1576> | [53][65] |
The firstindigenous group that submitted to the Spanish Crown were theTairona, who inhabited the area around Santa Marta, with their descendants presently living on the slopes of theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta and inTayrona National Park. On April 6, 1536, triggered by the stories of themythical "City of Gold"El Dorado, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada organised two groups of conquistadors to set foot towards the inner highlands of the ColombianAndes, as first European explorers.[66] The army with the brothers de Quesada and more than 700 soldiers and 80 horses went first east and then south passing theSierra Nevada de Santa Marta on their right hand over land and another, of more than 200 men, embarked in boats and ascended theMagdalena River fromCiénaga, in search of its origin. The list of the soldiers that eventually made it toFunza has been compiled by Juan Florez de Ocáriz (1612–1692).[53] The land army was led by Gonzalo with Hernán second in command.[67] The first indigenous group encountered, were theChimila. Continuing south, the troops had to cross inhospitable terrains full of creeks and part of their supplies and equipment was lost when crossing theAriguaní River.[1]
The difficulties of the expedition only increased when the conquerors went further inland. They reached the indigenous settlement ofChiriguaná, lost their indigenous guides brought from the coast and it took them eight days to reach the lakes ofTamalameque. The indigenous people there, who had suffered from the conquest expedition ofBavarian conquistadorAmbrosius Ehinger six years earlier, revolted defending the local population. They were submitted to the rule of de Quesada. The troops rested in this area for a while and Gonzalo sent a delegation to the Magdalena River to see if the boats had arrived. The messengers returned with sad news; the majority of boats hadshipwrecked in the mouth of the Magdalena and the soldiers who survived and made it onshore fell prey to thepoisoned arrows of the indigenous groups and thecrocodiles along the river. The remaining ships left forCartagena de Indias.Ortún Velázquez de Velasco and Luis de Manjarrés made it back to Santa Marta where they obtained new boats. They joined the army of de Quesada at the banks of the Magdalena two months later.[1]
The lower parts of the Magdalena River were inhabited by numerous indigenous groups who resisted the Spanish conquistadors withcanoes, fighting using poisoned arrows. This held the Spanish troops back and the reduced army joined forces on land inSompallón, where they had lost already 100 men.[7] The two conquistadors who reached this area first wereJuan de Sanct Martín andJuan de Céspedes.[68] Many of the disgruntled soldiers wanted to return to the relative safety of Santa Marta, butfather Juan Domingo de las Casas persuaded the soldiers to continue, at the risk of being called cowards if they refused. The expedition split in two again, with one part ascending further the Magdalena River and the main part through the thick forests of the right bank of the river. Here they encountered many natural dangers, such asjaguars,wild boar,snakes,mosquitoes,spiders, stinkygrisons, and the many spines and poisonous plants in the forest. Evenanteaters had attacked the troops and almost killed a horse.[7] Pioneers withmachetes were sent ahead to create pathways through the dense jungle, a task that could take up to 8 days for a path crossed by the army in hours. The troops took shelter from the heavy rains below trees and ate fruits and wild roots to survive. Many of the soldiers became ill and died due tosnake bites and jaguar attacks. They crossed the many creeks and rivers tributary to the Magdalena swimming, where thecaymans formed another risk. Apart from the natural hazards, also the indigenous people attacked the Spanish with their arrows, clubs and canoes. At night, when the soldiers were sleeping unprotected in theirhammocks, the jaguars attacked and killed them, and in many cases the screams of the men were not heard because of thethunderstorms.[1][69]
After eight months of horrible jungle experience where they advanced just 150 kilometres (93 mi), the heavily reduced troops reachedLa Tora, now called Barrancabermeja. Easier to defend, the settlement was taken as a place of rest for about three months and to bury the 100 more dead soldiers of which many were thrown in theriver to become food for the crocodiles.[7] Plagued by the hot climate, mosquitos, and illnesses and conscious that the broad river extended upwards, the expedition continued south. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was convinced they would reach the lands full of gold they heard about at the Caribbean coast and motivated his delegation of soldiers, that at this time had an average age of 27 years old, to walk on.[1][7]
From Barrancabermeja, the troops followed the course of theOpon River, but soon discovered it was not navigable anymore. Gonzalo decided to continue over land and they found a canoe withceramic pots withsalt andcloths. This was a sign they came closer to a great civilisation and it motivated the troops to march on. Gonzalo ordered 40 of his weakest men and 150 soldiers to return to Santa Marta. Those who returned fell into the hands of the indigenous groups along the way and few of them made the journey back to the Caribbean city. The brothers de Quesada marched on with 70 of the original horses and sent ahead the conquistadorsJuan de Céspedes,Antonio de Lebrija and Alférez Anton de Olalla.[70] They found a valley with scatteredhouses. Early 1537, after passing throughAguada, the expedition reachedChipatá, the first settlement of theMuisca, where father Juan Domingo de las Casas held his firstsermon.[1][70]
The climate of Chipatá, at 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) altitude, was much more pleasant than the hot lower valleys of the Opón River and Gonzalo decided to stay for five months in the town to allow his soldiers to rest and regain strength. The local Muisca of Chipatá brought the Spanish soldiers new mantles, as the ones taken from Santa Marta had worn down due to the harsh circumstances of their expedition. Some of the members of the expedition were already half-naked. In Chipatá, the Spanish for the first time learnt to drinkchicha, thefermented alcoholic beverage of the Muisca. Using the enslaved indigenous people of the coast who understood forms ofChibcha, Gonzalo and Hernán were informed where the civilisation producing those fine mantles and salt was located.[1]
| Settlement | Department | Date | Year | Notes | Map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Santa Marta | Magdalena | 6 April | 1536 | [1][7] | |
| Dibulla | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Riohacha | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| San Juan del Cesar | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Villanueva | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Urumita | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| La Jagua del Pilar | La Guajira | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| La Paz | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| San Diego | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Sompallón | Cesar | 1536 | [68] |  | |
| Chiriguaná | Cesar | 1536 | [1][7] |  | |
| Chimichagua | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Tamalameque | Cesar | 1536 | [1][7] |  | |
| La Gloria | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Gamarra | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Aguachica | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| San Martín | Cesar | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Rionegro | Santander | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Sabana de Torres | Santander | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Puerto Wilches | Santander | 1536 | [7] |  | |
| Barrancabermeja | Santander | 12 October or early December | 1536 | [1][7][71][note 3] |  |
| Simacota | Santander | January–February | 1537 | [7] |  |
| Vélez | Santander | January–February | 1537 | [7] |  |
| Aguada | Santander | January–February | 1537 | [70] |  |
| Chipatá | Santander | February–March | 1537 | [1][7][note 4] |  |
Chipatá was the first settlement of the laterNew Kingdom of Granada, founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada on March 8, 1537.[72] Shortly after, the rested and reinforced troops set foot to higher terrains towards the south. Different from the scattered and unorganised indigenous groups they encountered before, advancing into theMuisca Confederation, they found a much better organised society andeconomy. Theagriculture of the Muisca impressed the Spanish conquistadors and made them even more curious to find out who was the leader of the civilisation. While the Muisca regarded the European conquerors with distrust, they were also curious about them and where they came from.[1]
The Spanish settlers, still around 150 kilometres (93 mi) away from the southern Muisca capitalBacatá, continued south and reached theAltiplano Cundiboyacense, where they marched through the Ubaté-Chiquinquirá Valley, passing throughBarbosa, close toSaboyá. That town would later become the firstencomienda of Pedro de Galeano, the brother ofMartín Galeano, who were both taking part in the expedition.[73] Saboyá means in Chibcha "Taste of the mantles", referring to themantles that were elaborated by the Muisca fromtradedcotton.[74] Following the course of theSuárez River, the army continued south towardsSimijaca, the first settlement in the modern department ofCundinamarca. The troops stayed on the eastern bank of the Suárez River and reachedLake Fúquene, presently much smaller than in the 1530s. The water level estimated in the time of the expedition was 10 metres (33 ft) to 15 metres (49 ft) higher than today.[75]
Thecaciques of the settlements Simijaca and, further along the routeFúquene andTausa, were loyal to thezipa of Bacatá and the conquistadors were increasingly interested in the richness of that area. After Fúquene, they enteredGuachetá and founded the modern town on March 12,[76] continued toLenguazaque that was founded the next day,[77] and arrived inSuesca, founding that city on March 14.[78] Suesca would become the seat of Gonzalo Jiménez and his place of death 42 years later. After Suesca, the expedition enteredNemocón, the second-most importantsalt-producing town in the Muisca Confederation. When the troops of de Quesada arrived in Nemocón, the local inhabitants brought themfood likedeer,pigeons,rabbits,guinea pigs,beans,tubers, and other aliments, new to the Spanish. When the troops of de Quesada were in Nemocón, they were first attacked by the Muiscaguecha warriors of thezipa.[1]
The Spanish soldiers beat theMuisca warriors and continued southwest across theBogotá savanna towardsCajicá. Here they had an overview of the vast plains of the savanna, dotted withfarmfields on elevated terraces. The intermontane valley was populated with numerousbohíos, circular houses with a conical roof made of reed. The climate of the high plains was pleasant for the Spanish troops and Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada baptised the flatlandsValle de los Alcázares. The expedition halted inChía where they spent theHoly Week. After that week in April 1537, de Quesada ordered his men towardsFunza, the site of the domain of thezipa. Although the army of the brothers De Quesada was reduced to 170 men, the hundreds of guecha warriors couldn't resist the superior Spanish arms and were defeated. In the meantime,zipaTisquesusa sent messengers to thecaciques in the Muisca Confederation to inform them of the arrival of the light-skinned heavily armed men. Thecaciques considered the invaders sacred and didn't dare to attack them.[1] Funza was conquered and founded on April 20, 1537.[79] Of the more than 900 soldiers who left Santa Marta a year earlier, only 162 survived the harsh expedition.[53]
| Settlement bold is founded | Department | Date | Year | Altitude (m) urban centre | Notes | Map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chipatá | Santander | 8 March | 1537 | 1820 | [1][72] | |
| Barbosa | Santander | March | 1537 | 1610 |  | |
| Moniquirá | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 1669 | [80][note 5] |  |
| Santa Sofía | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 2387 |  | |
| Sutamarchán | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 1800 |  | |
| Ráquira | Boyacá | March | 1537 | 2150 | [81] |  |
| Simijaca | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2559 |  | |
| Susa | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2655 |  | |
| Fúquene | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2750 |  | |
| Guachetá | Cundinamarca | 12 March | 1537 | 2688 | [76] |  |
| Lenguazaque | Cundinamarca | 13 March | 1537 | 2589 | [77] |  |
| Cucunubá | Cundinamarca | 13–14 March | 1537 | 2590 |  | |
| Suesca | Cundinamarca | 14 March | 1537 | 2584 | [78] |  |
| Nemocón | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2585 | [1] |  |
| Zipaquirá | Cundinamarca | March | 1537 | 2650 |  | |
| Cajicá | Cundinamarca | 23 March | 1537 | 2558 | [1][82] |  |
| Chía | Cundinamarca | 24 March | 1537 | 2564 | [1][83] |  |
| Cota | Cundinamarca | March–April | 1537 | 2566 |  | |
| Funza | Cundinamarca | 20 April | 1537 | 2548 | [1][79] |  |
The arrival of the Spanish conquerors was revealed to Tisquesusa by themohan Popón, from the village ofUbaque. He told the Muisca ruler that foreigners were coming and Tisquesusa would die "bathing in his own blood".[84] When Tisquesusa was informed of the advancing invasion of the Spanish soldiers, he sent a spy toSuesca to find out more about their army strength, weapons, and with how many warriors they could be beaten. Thezipa left the capital Bacatá and took shelter inNemocón which directed the Spanish troops to there, during this march attacked by more than 600 Muisca warriors.[85]
When Tisquesusa retreated in his fort inCajicá he allegedly told his men he would not be able to combat against the strong Spanish army in possession of weapons that produced "thunder and lightning". He chose to return to Bacatá and ordered the capital to be evacuated, resulting in an abandoned site when the Spanish arrived. In search for the Muisca ruler the conquistadores went north to find Tisquesusa in the surroundings ofFacatativá where they attacked him at night.
Tisquesusa was thrusted by the sword of one of de Quesada's soldiers but without knowing he was thezipa he let him go, after taking the expensive mantle of the ruler. Tisquesusa fled hurt into the mountains pastFacatativá, in the west of the Bogotá savanna, and died of his wounds there. His body was only discovered a year later because of theblack vultures circling over it. Upon the death of Tisquesusa, his son Hama and daughter Machinza hid the sister of thezipa, Usaca, in one of the settlements on the Bogotá savanna. When one of the conquistadors, Juan María Cortés, found out about this, his prepared a battle to gain control over the area. At that moment, Usaca appeared and resisted against the Spanish conqueror. Legend tells that he dropped his weapons and fell in love with her, eventually marrying the sister of Tisquesusa and they were baptised inUsaquén, meaning "Land of the Sun" inMuysccubun. This formed the start of the construction of a colonial village, today part of the capital and known for its colonial architecture and parks.[86][note 6]
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| Settlement bold is founded | Department | Date | Year | Notes | Map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Engativá | Cundinamarca | 22 May | 1537 | [87] |  |
| Suba | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 |  | |
| Chía | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 | | |
| Cajicá | Cundinamarca | May | 1537 | | |
| Tocancipá | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  | |
| Gachancipá | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  | |
| Guatavita | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  | |
| Sesquilé | Cundinamarca | May–June | 1537 |  | |
| Chocontá | Cundinamarca | 9 June | 1537 | [88] |  |
| Machetá | Cundinamarca | June | 1537 |  | |
| Tibiritá | Cundinamarca | June | 1537 |  | |
| Guateque | Boyacá | June | 1537 |  | |
| Sutatenza | Boyacá | June | 1537 |  | |
| Tenza | Boyacá | 24 June | 1537 | [89] |  |
| La Capilla | Boyacá | June–July | 1537 |  | |
| Chivor | Boyacá | July | 1537 | [90] |  |
| Úmbita | Boyacá | July | 1537 |  | |
| Turmequé | Boyacá | 20 July | 1537 | [91] |  |
| Boyacá | Boyacá | 8 August | 1537 | [92] |  |
| Ciénega | Boyacá | August | 1537 |  | |
| Soracá | Boyacá | 20 August ~15:00 | 1537 | [93] |  |
| Hunza | Boyacá | 20 August | 1537 | [93] |  |
When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada found out thecaciques were conspiring against him, he sent out several expeditions of soldiers. His captain Juan de Céspedes went south to conquerFusagasugá and to foundPasca on July 15, 1537.[94] Hernán was sent north and Gonzalo himself went northeast, to search for the mythical Land of GoldEl Dorado. There he didn't find golden cities, butemeralds theMuisca were extracting inChivor andSomondoco. First foundation wasEngativá, presently a locality of Bogotá, on May 22, 1537.[87] Passing throughSuba,Chía,Cajicá,Tocancipá,Gachancipá,Guatavita, andSesquilé, he arrived inChocontá, founding the modern town on June 9.[88] The journey went eastward into theTenza Valley throughMachetá,Tibiritá,Guateque,Sutatenza, andTenza, founded onSan Juan; June 24.[89] On the same day, Hernán foundedSutatausa.[95] Gonzalo continued northwest throughLa Capilla andÚmbita. He arrived inTurmequé that he founded on July 20.[91]
In August 1537 Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada entered the territories of thezaque, who ruled fromHunza. When the Spanish conquerors entered the outskirts of Hunza and found a hill with poles where bodies were dangling, they named itCerro de la Horca ("Gallow Hill").[96] At the time of the conquestQuemuenchatocha was thezaque and he ordered his men to not submit to the European invaders or show them the way to hisbohío. He sent messengers to the Spanish conquistadors with valuable peace offers. While this was happening, Quemuenchatocha had hidden his treasures from the Spanish. Hunza was located in a valley not as green as theBogotá savanna. The advantage of the Spanish weaponry and the use of the horses quickly beat the Muisca warriors.[1]
When Gonzalo arrived at the mainbohío of Quemuenchatocha, he found the Muisca ruler sitting in his throne and surrounded by his closest companions. All men were dressed in expensive mantles and adorned withgolden crowns. On August 20, 1537, the Spanish beat thezaque and the big and strong Muisca ruler was taken captive toSuesca. There he was tortured and the Spanish soldiers hoped he would reveal where he hid his precious properties. The absence of Quemuenchatocha paved the route for his nephewAquiminzaque to succeed him as ruler of the northern Muisca, apractice common in Muisca traditions. When Quemuenchatocha was finally released from captivity in Suesca, he fled toRamiriquí, where he died shortly after. The Spanish soldiers found gold, emeralds,silver, mantles, and other valuables in Tunja. They were not able to take all the precious pieces and many were secretly taken away by the Muisca, using folded deer skins. They hid the valuables in nearby hills.[1]
After the victory of Gonzalo de Quesada of the important city of Hunza, with some of his men he continued toSuamox, the sacred City of the Sun, ruled by theiraca calledSugamuxi. TheTemple of the Sun, built to worship the Sun godSué, one of the two main deities in theMuisca religion, was a temple filled with gold, emeralds, cloths, andmummies. On his way to Suamox, presently called Sogamoso, the troops spent the night inPaipa. On August 25, 1537, other sources state a date in early September,[97] the troops arrived in theIraca Valley around Suamox.[1] While Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada ordered his men to leave the Sun Temple for the time being, two of his soldiers entered the temple at night and found the mummies sitting on elevated platforms inside. Their torches accidentally set the temple, made of wooden poles and clay, on fire. Before, the conquistadors had looted the temple and taken more than 300 kilograms (660 lb) of gold, worth 80,000ducats at the time, not taking into account theemeralds, fine cloths, and other valuables.[1]
At the start of 1538, when the troops were exhausted after almost two years in foreign terrain, the soldiers asked what was their payment for the conquest they had done. De Quesada divided the conquered treasures between his men; 40,000 pieces of fine gold, 562 emeralds, andtumbaga (gold-copper-silver alloys). Foot soldiers received 520 pieces each, horse riders double the amount, captains 2,080 pieces, generals 3,640, and some pieces were given as prizes for the most distinguished soldiers. Masses were organised to honour the many dead soldiers during the campaign and part of the treasure was given to Juan de las Casas. De Quesada was not pleased to hear about the advancement of another group of conquistadors in the east, led byNikolaus Federmann, coming from laterVenezuela across theLlanos Orientales. Another team of conquerors, commanded bySebastián de Belalcázar, was coming from the south, originating fromQuito. Gonzalo sent Hernán to meet the southern group who had traveled through the hot valley ofNeiva.[1]
One and a half-year after the victory of the conquistadors onTisquesusa, in the area ofTeusaquillo, the modern capital of Colombia was founded. Although some historians set the date at April 27, 1539, the common and celebrated date of foundation is August 6, 1538. The foundation was performed by the construction of 12 houses of reed, referring to theTwelve Apostles or to the twelve tribes ofJudea,[98] and the construction of a preliminary church, also of reed. Father Juan de las Casas held his first mass in the improvised church. The city was named Santafé de Bogotá, a combination of the Spanish city ofSantafé and theChibcha name of the southern Muisca capitalBacatá, meaning "Enclosure outside of the farmfields".[99] The newly established country, part of theSpanish Empire was calledNew Kingdom of Granada, after the place of birth of the brothers de Quesada inAndalusia;Kingdom of Granada.[1]
_-_Carta_I_-_Rutas_de_los_conquistadores_de_Colombia.jpg)
After the expeditions into the Muisca territories and to the north, submitting Hunza and Sugamuxi, and the foundation of Bogotá, various other journeys were organised. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada himself went west and submitted thePanche in theBattle of Tocarema, fought on August 20, 1538, in Tocarema, currently part ofCachipay.[note 7] In this battle, the Spanish had allied withSagipa, the new and lastzipa. De Quesada with only 50 soldiers and Sagipa 12,000[100] to 20,000[101]guecha warriors strong beat the Panche on 20 August 1538 and celebrated the victory.
Sagipa was held by the new Spanish rulers on accusation of his illegal rule. The Spanish demanded the vast amounts ofgold of the heritage of Tisquesusa. Initially Sagipa denied and went into hiding. When Sagipa saw the Muisca lost faith in his rule he surrendered to De Quesada. Outraged by his refusal to hand over the treasure Sagipa was tortured with iron bars. In early 1539 the lastzipa died in the Spanish camp in Bosa as a result of the torments by the Spanish rulers.[102][103][104]
| Settlement bold is founded | Department | Date | Year | Notes | Map |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cachipay | Cundinamarca | 20 August | 1538 |  | |
| Anolaima | Cundinamarca | 1538 | | ||
| Facatativá | Cundinamarca | 15 October | 1538 | [105] |  |
| Bojacá | Cundinamarca | 16 October | 1538 | [106][note 8] |  |
| Mosquera | Cundinamarca | October | 1538 |  | |
| Bosa | Cundinamarca | 1538 |  | ||
| Cerinza | Boyacá | 1538 | [107] |  | |
| Paipa | Boyacá | 1539 | [108] |  | |
| Tibasosa | Boyacá | 1539 | [109] |  | |
| Garagoa | Boyacá | 1539 | [110] |  |
The three leaders of the conquest expeditions; Gonzalo de Quesada, Nikolaus Federmann (in Spanish called De Federmán) and Sebastián de Belalcázar, met inBosa and agreed to travel back to Spain to ask for compensation for their exploration for the Spanish Crown. Gonzalo assigned Hernán as interim governor of the New Kingdom and chose the first mayor and council for the capital. Thechaplain of the team of Federmann, Juan Verdejo, was named priest. Most of the soldiers of the expeditions of Federmann and De Belalcázar decided to stay in Bogotá, reinforcing the reduced troops of De Quesada. Without having foundEl Dorado, three years after his departure from Santa Marta, in mid May 1539, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada returned to the Caribbean coast, to sail to Spain from Cartagena.[1] After writing his book about the conquest,Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada between 1548 and 1559,[7] Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada would return to the New Kingdom of Granada in the second half of the sixteenth century to continue his quest forEl Dorado in theLlanos Orientales,Huila andTolima. Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada died inMariquita in 1579.
Before embarking on a ship on the Magdalena River to take them toCartagena, the three conquistadors founded their place of harbour; Panche settlementGuataquí on April 6, 1539.[111]
Tundama, who ruled the northernmost part of the Muisca Confederation from an island in the former lake aroundTundama, already got notice of the burning of the Sun Temple, two years earlier and the submission of the neighbouringindigenous groups, thePanche,Guane and others and told hisguecha warriors not to bow for the Spanish invaders.[112] When one of his warriors suggested surrender was the best option, Tundama cut off his ears and left hand.[113] Thecacique declared a "death war" against the Spanish and gathered an army of 10,000 guecha warriors.[112]
To keep the conquistadores away, he sent a delegation of his people withemeralds, gold and mantles to offer the Spanish with the promise that Tundama would surrender bringing eight more of these. Gaining time, Tundama hid his treasures and prepared the defence of Tundama.[112]
On December 15, 1539, another Spanish captain coming from the south after conqueringPeru and theKingdom of Quito as part of the expedition by De Belalcázar,Baltasar Maldonado, entered the territories of Tundama and offered him a peace proposal if he would surrender. Tundama, informed by the Spanish murders ofzipa Tisquesusa andzaque Quemuenchatocha, did not accept and Maldonado attacked Tundama and his army on the island in Vargas Swamp, where 280 years later theBattle of Vargas Swamp bySimón Bolívar would be fought.[112][113][114] Maldonado, enforced with 2000yanakunas; indigenous prisoners of war from Peru and submitted people from Bacatá andRamiriquí, was accompanied by the Muisca whose ears and hand had been cut off by Tundama. The Spanish conquistador with his superior weapons, cavalry and the inside knowledge of the earless Muisca killed 4000 guecha warriors of Tundama. Seeing this battle was fruitless, Tundama fled to Cerinza to ally with thecacique from there and prepared a new attack on the Spanish and indigenous troops, losing again. Thecaciques of northern Boyacá convinced Tundama to not fight anymore and Tundama surrendered to the Spanish troops. Maldonado demanded huge quantities of gold and emeralds to pay his loss to the Spanish. When handing over the valuables, Maldonado deemed the payments not enough and before the end of the year Maldonado killed Tundama with a large hammer.[112][115]
| History of the Muisca | |||||||||
 | |||||||||
Altiplano | Muisca |  Art | Architecture |  Astronomy |  Cuisine |  El Dorado |  Subsistence |  Women | Conquest |
After the foundation of Bogotá and the installation of the new dependency of the Spanish Crown, several strategies were important to the Spanish conquerors. The richmineral resources of the Altiplano had to be extracted, theagriculture was quickly reformed, a system ofencomiendas was installed and a main concern of the Spanish was theevangelisation of the Muisca. On October 9, 1549,Carlos V sent a royal letter to the New Kingdom directed at the priests about the necessity of population reduction of the Muisca.[116] The indigenous people were working in the encomiendas which limited their religious conversion.[116] To speed up the process of submittance to the Spanish reign, the mobility of the indigenous people was prohibited and the people gathered in resguardos.[117] The formerly celebrated festivities in theirreligion disappeared. Specific times for thecatechesis were controlled by laws, as executed in royal dictates in 1537, 1538 and 1551.[118] The firstbishop of Santafé,Juan de los Barrios, ordered to destroy the temples of the Muisca and replace them with catholic churches.[119] The last public religious ceremony of the Muisca was held inUbaque on December 27, 1563.[120] The second bishop of Santafé,Luis Zapata de Cárdenas, intensified the aggressive policies against the indigenous religious practices and ordered the burnings of their sacred sites. This formed the final nail in the coffin of the former polytheistic society.[119]
The transition to a mixed agriculture withOld World crops was remarkably fast, mainly to do with the fertility of the lands of the Altiplano permitting European crops to grow there, while in the more tropical areas the soil was not so much suited for the foreign crops. In 1555, the Muisca ofToca were growing European crops aswheat andbarley andsugarcane was grown in other areas.[121] The previously self-sustaining economy was quickly transformed into one based on intensive agriculture andmining that produced changes in the landscape and culture of the Muisca.[122]
The system of encomienda consisted of handing over terrains and indigenous people to the encomenderos. In 1553, 300 to 500 indigenous people were provided to the encomendero ofCota. The encomendero then had to pay tribute to the Spanish Crown.[123]
In modern anthropology studying the Muisca and the tales of the conquistadors, especially Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, whose writings are the only primary sources that survived, efforts have been made to revise the descriptions of the Muisca. The early Spanish chroniclers have written aboutcannibalism of various indigenous groups, stories that have later been refuted by experts.[124] Also the idea that the Muisca were a war-like people has been revised in the modern age, pointing to their successful trading, that even the Spanish scholars, such as first bishop of BogotáJuan de los Barrios, have praised in their writings.[125] Various other researchers have taken caution in taking the early ethnographic accounts on the warfare status as unambiguously true.[126] In early texts, the Muisca were described as having to pay tributes to thecaciques, an idea explained to be misunderstood by anthropologistCarl Henrik Langebaek.[127] All the conquistadors and later writers such asPedro de Aguado,Pedro Simón,Juan Rodríguez Freyle,Juan de Castellanos andLucas Fernández de Piedrahita were men, introducingsexism into the history books. Many modern archaeologists and anthropologists of the Muisca are female and have revised the role of thewomen in Muisca society, withSylvia Broadbent,Ana María Groot,Marianne Cardale de Schrimpff and many others as notable examples.[128][129][130][131] Also the description of theMuisca Confederation as a stratified empire has been revised, most notably byJorge Gamboa Mendoza.[132] The "stone fortress" that has been described inCajicá by Spanish chroniclers may have been built after the conquest.[133] Misunderstandings about the Muisca originated from the difficulties in language; the Spanish used indigenous translators taken captive on their route and brought along from the coast, introducing errors in the understanding of the Chibcha of the Muisca, thatin many cases is very different from the other Chibchan languages. The word for "one" in Muysccubun isata, while in the closest related Chibchan languages of Colombia "one" translates asúbistia (Uwa),intok (Barí) andti-tasu ornyé (Chimila).[134][135]
Also about the names of thezipa andzaque of the Muisca when the Spanish conquistadors arrived in Muisca territory;Tisquesusa andQuemuenchatocha respectively, doubts have risen after investigation in the 21st century. The names of the rulers have their origin in the workElegías de varones ilustres de Indias written by poetJuan de Castellanos decades after the events of the conquest. The names of the rulers are possibly invented or modified by De Castellanos and taken over into later publications about the Muisca by authors such asPedro Simón. Modern research, byJorge Gamboa Mendoza among others, has revealed that when the Spanish troops were entering the territories of the Muisca, the Muisca frequently presented other individuals instead of the rulers to the invaders. This strategy was to protect the Muisca rulers and their valuables, of great interest to the Spanish who were in search ofEl Dorado.[136] The modern anthropologists maintain that the names of thecaciques were different; "Bogotá" for Tisquesusa and "Eucaneme" for Quemuenchatocha, whose nephew was called Quiminza.[note 9]
Gamboa Mendoza mentions the omitting of information in the early Spanish chronicles about the participation of other indigenous groups and leaders in the conquest. What he describes as "enemy"; thecacique ofGuatavita, allied with the Spanish to fight their own people.[136][note 10]
One of the most important sources for the Spanish conquest of the Muisca,El Carnero, written byJuan Rodríguez Freyle, son of soldier Juan Freyle who served under conquistadorPedro de Ursúa, has been critically reviewed as a literary creative collection of stories, anecdotes and rumours, mixed with common opinions of the time.[137][138]
Muisca Confederation had 300,000 to 2,000,000 inhabitants
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