| Spanish conquest of Nicaragua | |||||||
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| Part of theSpanish colonization of the Americas | |||||||
 Approximate territory controlled byPedrarias Dávila in 1527. More than half the population still lives in this area.[1] | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Spanish Empire, includingIndian auxiliaries |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 400,000–600,000 dead, primarily due to disease[3][4] | |||||||
TheSpanish conquest of Nicaragua was the campaign undertaken by the Spanishconquistadores and theirTlaxcaltec allies against thenatives of the territory now incorporated into the modernCentral American republic ofNicaragua during thecolonisation of the Americas.[5][6] Before European contact in the early 16th century, Nicaragua was inhabited by a number of indigenous peoples. The west was inhabited byMesoamerican groups such as the Nicarao, the Chorotega, and the Subtiaba. TheNicarao are aNahua people closely related to theMexica ofMexico,[7] and were divided into different chiefdoms each ruled by its own chief, such as chiefAkatekwtli ofTeswatlan in modern-dayChinandega,[8][9] chiefMacuilmiquiztli of Kwawkapolkan in modern-dayRivas, and chief Wemak of Kakawatan also located in Rivas.[10][11][12] TheChorotegas [es] and theSubtiaba are closely related to the Chiapanec andTlapanec of Mexico, respectively.[13] Other groups included theMatagalpa and theTacacho, both of which mainly inhabited central Nicaragua.
Gil González Dávila first entered what is now Nicaragua in 1522, with the permission ofPedrarias Dávila, governor ofCastilla de Oro, but was driven back to his ships by the Chorotega and the Nicarao, and sailed south into what is now Panama.[14][15] In 1524, a new expedition led byFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba founded the Spanish towns ofLeón andGranada. The western portions of Nicaragua along thePacific littoral plain received the brunt of the Spanish activity in the territory for the next three decades.[16] Within a century of the conquest, the native inhabitants had been nearly exterminated due to war against the Spanish and their Tlaxcallan allies, disease, and exportation as slaves.[7]
Nicaragua is the largest country in Central America, covering an area of 129,494 square kilometres (49,998 sq mi) – or 120,254 km2 (46,430 sq mi) without including the surface area of its two largest lakes. The country is bordered to the north byHonduras, and to the south byCosta Rica; it is bordered to the west by thePacific Ocean and to the east by theCaribbean Sea.[17] Nicaragua is divided into three broad regions, the Pacific Lowlands in the west, the Central Highlands, and the Caribbean Lowlands in the east.[18] The Pacific lowlands are largely a coastal plain extending approximately 75 km (47 mi) inland from thePacific Ocean. A chain of volcanoes extends from theGulf of Fonseca southeast towardsLake Nicaragua; many of them are active. The volcanoes lie along the western edge of arift valley running southeast from the Gulf of Fonseca to theSan Juan River, which forms a part of the border withCosta Rica. The two largest lakes in Central America dominate the rift valley:Lake Managua andLake Nicaragua. Lake Managua measures 56 by 24 km (35 by 15 mi), and Lake Nicaragua measures 160 by 75 km (99 by 47 mi). TheTipitapa River flows south out of Lake Managua and into Lake Nicaragua, which empties into the Caribbean via the San Juan River.[17] The Central Highlands reach altitudes of up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft)above mean sea level, and consist of generally east–west running ranges that include theCordillera Dariense,Cordillera de Dipilto,Cordillera Isabella, theHuapí Mountains, and theYolaina Mountains.[19]
In central Nicaragua, the temperature varies between 20 and 25 °C (68 and 77 °F); rainfall averages 1,000 to 2,000 mm (39 to 79 in) per year. There is a four-month dry season, with the rain season lasting throughout the rest of the year. Before the conquest, the Central Highlands were covered withconiferous forest.[19] ThePacific coastal plain is classified astropical dry forest, and features fertile volcanic soils. TheAtlantic lowlands receive higher rainfall; the soils are less fertile, and the region is classified astropical moist forest.[20]
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When theSpanish first arrived in what is nowNicaragua there were three principal indigenous groups living in the western portions of the country; these were theChorotega (also known as the Mangue),[21] theNicarao, and theMatagalpa (also known as Chontal, from theNahuatl term for "foreigner").[22] The Nicarao were aNawat-speakingMesoamerican people that had migrated southwards from centralMexico from the 8th century AD onwards. They broke off from thePipil around the early 13th century and settled in pockets of western Nicaragua along thePacific coast, with their heaviest concentration in what is now thedepartment ofRivas.[23] The Chorotega were also a Mesoamerican people that had migrated from Mexico and spoke theMangue language. TheSubtiaba (also known as the Maribio) were another group of Mexican origin, speaking theSubtiaba language. TheTacacho were a small group of unknown origin and language.[21] The Matagalpa were a non-Mesoamerican people of theIntermediate Area, who spoke aMisumalpan language, but belonged to theChibchoidean cultural region.[24] They occupied the Central Highlands,[19] over an area covering the moderndepartments ofBoaco,Chontales,Estelí,Jinotega,Matagalpa, southwestern parts ofNueva Segovia, and neighbouring parts ofHonduras.[25] The Matagalpa were a tribal society organised into different lineages andchiefdoms, who engaged in organised intertribal warfare; at the time of Spanish contact they were at war with the Nicarao.[26] Eastern Nicaragua was inhabited byChibchoidean peoples such as theRama, and theMisumalpa peoples such as theMayangna and theMiskito.[27] The Chibchoidean peoples of the interior were culturally related toSouth American groups, and had developed more complex societies than that of the Miskito, who were ofCaribbean origin.[28] Based on scholar analysis of Spanish accounts traversing through this region without much difficulty or need to clear paths to travel during the conquest, it suggests that there existed a significant degree of commerce through created or constructed land and water routes between sophisticated societies termed cacicazgos with political structures led by chiefs known as caciques who which were elected by the members of the pueblos.[29]
The population of Nicaragua at the time of contact is estimated at 825,000. The first century after Spanish contact witnessed the demographic collapse of the native populations, resulting principally from exposure toOld World diseases and their exportation as slaves, but also from a combination of war and mistreatment.[30]
The Spanish described the Matagalpa as being well-organised, with ordered battle-lines. The Nicarao engaged in war with the Matagalpa, probably in order to capture slaves, and prisoners to be offered forhuman sacrifice.[26]
Gil González Dávila was the first European to explore present-day Nicaragua. Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with theSpanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule.[31] The Spanish foundedSanto Domingo on theCaribbean island ofHispaniola in the 1490s.[32] In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands, the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island ofCuba.[33]
In the first two decades of the 16th century, the Spanish established their domination over the islands of theCaribbean Sea, and used these as a staging point to launch their campaigns of conquest on the continental mainland of the Americas.[34] From Hispaniola, the Spanish launched expeditions and campaigns of conquest, reachingPuerto Rico in 1508,Jamaica in 1509, Cuba in 1511, andFlorida in 1513.[35]
In the south, the Spanish established themselves inCastilla de Oro (modernPanama),[36] whenVasco Núñez de Balboa foundedSanta María la Antigua in 1511. In 1513, while exploring westwards, Balboa discovered thePacific Ocean, and in 1519Pedrarias Dávila foundedPanama City on the Pacific coast.[37] The focus soon turned to exploring south along the Pacific coast towards South America.[38]
The Spanish heard rumours of the rich empire of theAztecs on the mainland to the west of their Caribbean island settlements and, in 1519, Hernán Cortés set sail to explore the Mexican coast.[33] By August 1521 the Aztec capital ofTenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish.[39] The Spanish conquered a large part of Mexico within three years, extending as far south as theIsthmus of Tehuantepec. The newly conquered territory becameNew Spain, headed by aviceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via theCouncil of the Indies.[40]
The discovery of the Aztec Empire and its great riches changed the focus of exploration out of Panama from the south to northwest.[38] Various expeditions were then launched northwards involving notable conquistadors such asPedrarias Dávila,Gil González Dávila, andFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba (not to be confused with the conquistadorof the same name involved in theSpanish conquest of Yucatán).[36]
One of the key indigenous figures encountered by Spanish explorers during the early 16th century in what is now Nicaragua was Cacique Nicarao, the principal ruler of the Nicarao people, a Nahua-speaking group that had migrated southward from central Mexico several generations earlier. They established settlements along the Pacific coast near Lake Nicaragua, primarily in the region surrounding present-day Rivas. This area was densely populated and agriculturally productive, with organized settlements and ceremonial structures reflecting Mesoamerican influence.[41]
Cacique Nicarao governed a political and religious center described in early Spanish chronicles as having temples, markets, and social hierarchies similar to those found in other Nahua-dominated regions of Mesoamerica. The Spanish, including members of Gil González Dávila’s 1522–1523 expedition, reported Nicarao’s reception of the conquistadors as diplomatically significant. According to their accounts, Nicarao allowed the Spanish to enter his territory and participate in ritual and political exchanges, possibly as a strategic move rather than an act of submission.[42]
One of the most frequently cited events is the baptism of Nicarao, during which he is said to have accepted Christianity and taken the name Fernando, symbolizing allegiance to the Spanish crown. However, modern historians and commentators question whether this act was voluntary or conducted under coercion. The broader context suggests that such baptisms were often carried out as part of colonial rituals designed to signal submission, regardless of genuine indigenous intent.[43]
Nicarao’s territory was among the first areas targeted by Spanish settlers due to its fertile lands and strategic location near both Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific coast. In 1524, Spanish captain Francisco Hernández de Córdoba established the city of Granada within this region, marking a significant moment in the colonial expansion into western Nicaragua. The foundation of Granada represented a shift from exploration to permanent settlement and reinforced Spanish efforts to integrate indigenous polities into the encomienda system.[44]
The cultural and geographic imprint of Cacique Nicarao’s people continues to influence Nicaraguan identity. Many scholars and local traditions assert that the name “Nicaragua” itself is a combination ofNicarao and the Spanish wordagua (water), referencing the large freshwater lakes that dominate the region’s landscape.[45]
Although the historical record becomes silent on Nicarao’s fate after the Spanish established full control, his legacy remains symbolically important. He is remembered as both a diplomatic strategist and a representative of indigenous resilience in the face of European colonization. His story reflects the broader experience of many indigenous leaders during the conquest: navigating an unfamiliar imperial force through negotiation, religious adaptation, and pragmatic resistance.
The conquistadors were all volunteers, the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory, in the form ofprecious metals, land grants and provision of native labour.[46] Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned inEurope.[47]Pedrarias Dávila was a nobleman whose father and grandfather had been influential in the courts of the kingsJohn II andHenry IV of Castile.[48]Gabriel de Rojas was an officer of Dávila who probably travelled fromSpain with him; he was a younger brother drawn from a notable family that had risen to prominence in the service ofHenry IV of Castile,[49] and was a veteran of the conquest ofTierra Firme (Caribbean South America). After campaigning inNicaragua he distinguished himself in theconquest of Peru.[50] Little is known of the origin ofFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba; he was likely to have been a commoner elevated to the nobility as a result of his actions in theNew World.[51]Gil González Dávila was a professional soldier who arrived inPanama in 1519.[52]Hernando de Soto was a nobleman fromVillanueva de Barcarrota. After Nicaragua, he campaigned inPeru, served asgovernor of Cuba, and exploredFlorida.[53]Pedro de Garro was a veteran of theItalian Wars. He brought 43 cavalry and 57 infantry to support Gil González inHonduras, and soon passed to Nicaragua to assist Hernández de Córdoba.[54]
The 16th-century Spanish conquistadors were armed withbroadswords,rapiers,crossbows,matchlocks and lightartillery. Mounted conquistadors were armed with a 3.7-metre (12 ft)lance, that also served as apike for infantrymen. A variety ofhalberds andbills were also employed. As well as the one-handed broadsword, a 1.7-metre (5+1⁄2 ft) long two-handed version was also used.[55] Crossbows had 60-centimetre (2 ft) arms stiffened with hardwoods, horn, bone and cane, and supplied with a stirrup to facilitate drawing the string with a crank and pulley.[56] Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks, especially in the humid tropical climate of theCaribbean region.[57]
Metal armour was of limited use in the hot, wet tropical climate. It was heavy and had to be constantly cleaned to prevent rusting; in direct sunlight, metal armour became unbearably hot.Conquistadores often went without metal armour, or only donned it immediately prior to battle.[58] They were quick to adopt quilted cotton armour based upon that used by their native opponents, and commonly combined this with the use of a simple metalwar hat.[59]Shields were considered essential by both infantry and cavalry; generally this was a circular target shield, convex in form and fashioned from iron or wood. Rings secured it to the arm and hand.[55]
The justification for conquest was explicitly religious. In 1493, the SpanishPope Alexander VI issued theBulls of Donation that justified the colonisation of theNew World for the express purpose of converting the native inhabitants toChristianity.[60] The Spanish Crown and the Church insisted that the conquered peoples were human souls meriting legal rights and protection, while some colonists claimed they were subhuman, and a valid resource for forced labour. These opposing viewpoints led to conflict between the authorities in Spain and the colonists on the ground in theAmericas.[61] There was religious participation in the conquest of Nicaragua from the first exploratory expeditions onwards; FatherDiego de Agüero accompaniedGil González on his 1519 expedition, and returned withFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba in 1524, with two religious companions.[62] One of the first actions performed upon entering an indigenous settlement was to plant a cross on top of the local shrine, to symbolically replace the native religion with the authority of the Church.[63] Fathers Contreras and Blas Hernández established the firstJesuit presence in 1619.[64]
Spanish explorers first viewed thePacific coast ofNicaragua in 1519, sailing up fromPanama.[65] That year,Pedrarias Dávila executedVasco Núñez de Balboa and seized his ships on the Pacific coast of Panama. He putGaspar de Espinosa in command of two ships,San Cristóbal andSanta María de la Buena Esperanza, and sent him to scout westwards.[66] Espinosa disembarked at theBurica Peninsula, on the modern border betweenPanama andCosta Rica, to return overland to Panama.[67] The two ships continued along the coast, under the command ofJuan de Castañeda andHernán Ponce de León.[68] They discovered theGulf of Nicoya, probably on 18 October of that year, which became the key entry route to Nicaragua for later expeditions.[69] This first tentative expedition made landfall at the Gulf of Nicoya, but did not establish a Spanish presence;[65] they were met by a great number of native canoes carrying warriors, with more warriors amassed on the shore making a great display of force. Seeing that there would be fierce opposition, the ships turned back to Panama. The Spanish managed to capture three or four natives, who were taken back with them to learn Spanish and be used as interpreters.[70]
The Spanish Crown issued a license to explore the Pacific coast toGil González Dávila andAndrés Niño inZaragoza in October 1518;[71] they set out fromSpain in September 1519.[72] Although the Crown had issued them permission to useBalboa's two ships still anchored on the Pacific coast ofPanama,Pedrarias Dávila opposed their taking possession, arguing that they were not Balboa's exclusive property. González Dávila and Niño therefore built their own ships on thePearl Islands.[73] On 21 January 1522,[74] with the approval of Pedrarias Dávila, who was governor ofCastilla de Oro (modern Panama), they travelled northwest acrossCosta Rica and theIsthmus of Rivas into southwesternNicaragua.[75] The expedition advanced slowly westwards, only reaching southeasternCosta Rica in October or November 1522.[74] Due to damage sustained by their ships, and spoiled water, they decided to split up.[74] Andrés Niño repaired the ships and scouted the coast,[76] while Gil González penetrated inland with 100 Spaniards and 400native auxiliaries.[77] They met up at theGulf of Nicoya, whereJuan de Castañeda andHernán Ponce de León had made landfall,[74] at what is now the port ofCaldera, in Costa Rica. Here they noticed that the natives had cultural traits more in common with the inhabitants of theYucatán Peninsula. By this time, González was weakened by sickness, and wished to continue by sea, but his men demanded he continue the march with them.[78] They used one of the ships to cross to the western shore of the Gulf of Nicoya, where they were received enthusiastically by the natives.[79] He pushed on overland, with 100 Spaniards and 4 horses.[78]
WhileGil González Dávila marched overland with his troops,Andrés Niño left two of his ships behind and sailed onwards with the remaining two.[80] On 27 February 1523, Niño put to shore atEl Realejo, where Captain Antón Mayor formally took possession of the territory in the name of the Spanish crown, the first Spanish act in the territory of what is now Nicaragua.[69] They met no opposition at that time, and the act was officially recorded by Juan de Almanza, who acted as scribe for the legal documentation. To commemorate this act, they named the place Posesión. Niño sailed onwards, making landfall on an island in theGulf of Fonseca on 5 March, giving the gulf its name in honour of Spanish bishopJuan Rodríguez de Fonseca.[80] Niño continued onwards as far as theIsthmus of Tehuantepec, in what is nowMexico.[79]
Meanwhile, on his march inland,Gil González heard rumours of a powerful native ruler calledNicarao, who commanded many warriors. He was advised not to continue, but decided to march on until he met opposition.[81] Nicarao intercepted Gil González outside his capital city,[82] calledQuauhcapolca,[83] and received him in peace. He invited the Spaniards to lodge near the city plaza and the two leaders exchanged gifts; González wrote that he received the equivalent of 15,000 goldcastellanos. The Spanish captain gifted Nicarao with silk clothing and many other items brought from Spain. Over the course of the next few days, the Spanish instructed the natives in the basics of Christian religion. He claimed that after this, the natives wished to convert to the new religion, and that just over 9,000 people were baptised in one day, including adults and children of both genders.[82] After several days in the Nicarao capital, González learned ofLake Nicaragua, and he sent a small detachment of soldiers to confirm its existence; he then travelled in person with 15 foot soldiers and 3 mounted soldiers. Among those who went with him to the lakeshore were the expedition's treasurerAndrés de Cereceda, andfriarDiego de Agüero.[84] On 12 April 1523 they claimed the lake for the Spanish Crown under the name ofMar Dulce ("sweet sea").[85] González sent out a canoe to scout the lake for a short distance, and questioned the natives as to whether it connected with the sea, without receiving any clear response; nonetheless, the Spanish were convinced that the lake must have an outlet to theCaribbean Sea, and that they had discovered a new route across theCentral American isthmus.[86] A great many natives came to see the newly arrived Europeans, driven by curiosity about their strange appearance and mode of dress, and horses, which the natives had never seen before.[87]
FromQuauhcapolca,Gil González Dávila advanced to the indigenous settlement of Coatega,[87] near theMombacho volcano,[88] where he was met by another powerful ruler,Diriangén, leader of theChorotega.[89] Diriangén came accompanied by a great many richly adorned followers, and said he had come to the bearded strangers and their animals for himself.[90] After the initial encounter, Diriangén said he would return in three days. He returned on 17 April at midday, arrayed for battle. The Spanish were alerted to the surprise attack by one of the local natives; even so a violent struggle ensued that resulted in the wounding of various Spanish defenders. The use of their small number of horses assisted them, since they struck fear into the enemy. The Chorotega attack was beaten off, and González immediately sent messengers to call back an advance party consisting of friar Agüero accompanied by a number of soldiers, who had been advancing towards Diriangén's territory. The violent opposition of the Chorotega convinced González and his officers to turn back with the gold they had already collected.[91] They marched back south throughNicarao territory, by now suspicious of all indigenous activity. They took up a defensive formation, in a compact group with a single mounted soldier on each side. In the main group, 60 of the fittest soldiers went ready for battle, while the wounded travelled with the supplies, gold, and native porters in the centre.[88] They were met with passively hostile reactions from the natives they passed, until they finally met a number ofNicarao nobles, who apologised for the hostile reception.[92] González accepted the apology, due to the vulnerability of his forces. They spent the next night in a state of alert upon a hilltop; the next day they continued their retreat in defensive formation, crossing lands abandoned by the Indians until they reached the safety of their ships on thePacific coast.Andrés Niño had returned to the anchorage a few days previously, but all the ships were in poor repair and the Spanish expedition was forced to make the arduous journey back toPanama in canoes. They arrived back atPanama on 23 June 1523.[93]
Gil González Dávila had discoveredLake Nicaragua, metNicarao, and converted thousands of natives to theRoman Catholic religion.[94] These included the 9,000 vassals ofNicarao, and 6,000 ofNicoya; González claimed that the total number of natives baptised by the expedition was 32,000.[95] The overland expedition had collected a significant quantity of gold from the natives,[96] amounting to 112,525 goldpesos, including that which had been collected while crossingCosta Rica.[97]
Gil González Dávila planned to return toNicaragua as soon as possible,[93] but faced interference fromPedrarias Dávila and fromPanama City's treasurer, Alonso de la Puente.[98] Pedrarias Dávila had learned of their discovery of gold and acted quickly to outfit a new expedition in late 1523. While the two explorers put in a claim to the Spanish Crown of the lands they had discovered, he planned to seize control of the newly discovered territories before the Crown could validateGonzález andNiño's claims. The new expedition was a private enterprise under royal commission; the participants signed the two-year contract on 22 September 1523, with one third of the spoils to go to Pedrarias Dávila, and one sixth each to auditor Diego Marquez, treasurer Alonso de la Puente, lawyer Juan Rodríguez de Alarconcillo, andFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba. Hernández de Córdoba was placed in command.[99] Pedrarias Dávila sent one of his captains to Spain to recruit more men, and purchase horses,[100] while inPanama he purchased Andrés Niño's ships, rigging, horses, and other items for 2,000 goldpesos.[101] Meanwhile, González planned to return to Nicaragua by exploring a river route from theCaribbean Sea toLake Nicaragua, thus avoiding Pedrarias Dávila's jurisdiction overCastilla de Oro completely.[102] In the event, he landed further west and initiated theSpanish conquest of Honduras.[103] Although González expedition was the first to set foot in Nicaragua, Pedrarias Dávila based his own claim upon the earlier discovery of the territory byJuan de Castañeda andHernán Ponce de León, under his orders.[104]
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, under orders ofPedrarias Dávila, set out fromPanama forNicaragua in mid-October 1523, probably on 15 October.[105] The expedition consisted of three or four ships, carrying over 200 men, including officers, foot soldiers, cavalry, and approximately 16African slaves.[106] His senior officers wereAntón Mayor,Juan Alonso Palomino,Alonso de Peralta,Francisco de la Puente,Gabriel de Rojas, andHernando de Soto.[50]
In 1524, Hernández founded the colonial towns ofLeón andGranada.[94] He founded Granada by the indigenous town ofJalteba, and León in the centre of the native province ofImabite.[107] The indigenous territory of Nagrando with a population of about 15,000 Nicarao also encompassed the area in which the city of the Leon was founded.[108]There are no direct accounts of the expedition that founded these first Spanish towns; such accounts would have taken the form of letters sent to Pedrarias Dávila in Panama, where they were lost.[109] It is known that the natives put up a resistance, as evident when Diriangén and his Nahua enemies made peace and fought together against the Spanish and Tlaxcaltecas, but unknown how many battles were fought, nor where, nor who led indigenous resistance against the Spanish besides Diriangén, Macuilmiquiztli, Wemak and his son Eskuat, Akatekwtli and finally his son who became chief of Teswatlan after the death of his father during Spanish conquest.[110][111]
Hernández is likely to have followedGil González Dávila's route from theGulf of Nicoya to the territory of theNicarao chiefdoms of Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan.[10][112] The expedition carried parts for a smallbrigantine, which the Spanish assembled on the shores ofLake Nicaragua.[113] The brigantine explored the lake, and found that it did indeed flow out to theCaribbean via a river, but that the river was too rocky to be navigable, with several waterfalls blocking progress. Nonetheless, the explorers were able to confirm the river's course, and that the land was heavily populated by indigenous groups, and that the terrain was forested. The party sent by Hernández continued overland for 80leagues (approximately 335 km or 208 mi)[nb 1] before turning back.[62]
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Hernández divided his forces into three groups; one division remained under his direct command, one placed under the command ofHernando de Soto, and the other under the command ofFrancisco de la Puente.[54] By 1 May 1524, Hernández had advanced as far west as Tezoatega (now known asEl Viejo, in the department ofChinandega).[115] Around this time, the natives of theCordillera de los Maribios mountains, about 5 leagues fromLeón (about 21 km or 13 mi), killed a large number of indigenous men and women, dressed themselves in their skins and met the Spanish in battle, but were routed.[116] By the beginning of August, Hernández was in the vicinity of León, passing through the native provinces of Imabite and Diriondo. It is likely that León was not actually founded until after this,[117] but before April 1525, when Hernández sent a letter to Pedrarias Dávila, having already founded León and Granada.[118] Undocumented indigenous resistance is supported by Spanish records showing that as early as 1524, prisoners of war were being shipped to Panama as slaves.[119]
While establishing a Spanish presence inNicaragua,Hernández de Córdoba received news of a new Spanish presence to the north.[120]Gil González Dávila had arrived in theOlancho Valley (within the modern borders ofHonduras).[121] The jurisdictional limits of Nicaragua had not yet been set, and Gil González viewed himself as the rightful governor of the territory.[122] Hernández sentGabriel de Rojas to investigate, who was received in peace by González. González instructed Rojas that neitherPedrarias Dávila norHernández de Córdoba had any rights over Honduras, and that González would not permit them to take any action there. Rojas reported back to Hernández de Córdoba, who immediately dispatched soldiers under the command ofHernando de Soto to capture González.[121] González caught Hernando de Soto by surprise with a night-time assault, and a number of de Soto's men were killed in the fighting that followed. González succeeded in capturing de Soto, along with 130,000pesos. Although he had won the day, González was aware that Hernández de Córdoba was unlikely to let matters rest, and he also received news that a new Spanish expedition had arrived on the north coast of Honduras. Not wishing to be surrounded by hostile Spanish rivals, González set de Soto free and rushed north.[123] As events played out in Honduras, and Gil González lost the initiative, some of his men deserted and marched south to join the forces of Hernández de Córdoba in Nicaragua.[124]
Gabriel de Rojas remained inOlancho into 1525 in a continued attempt to extend Nicaraguan jurisdiction there;[125] he was told by native informants of new Spanish arrivals in Honduras,[126] where, in September,[127]Hernan Cortés, conqueror ofMexico, had arrived to impose his authority. Rojas sent a letter and gifts with messengers, who metGonzalo de Sandoval, then proceeded onwards to Cortés atTrujillo. Cortés at first responded in a friendly manner to Rojas' overtures.[126] Upon meeting native resistance, Rojas' men began pillaging the district and enslaving the inhabitants.[125] Cortés dispatched Sandoval to order Rojas out of the territory, and to release any Indians and their goods that he had seized. Sandoval was under orders to either capture Rojas, or expel him from Honduras, but in the event was unable to do either.[126] While the two groups were still gathered, Rojas received orders fromHernández de Córdoba to return toNicaragua to assist him against his rebellious captains.[128]
Hernández de Córdoba sent a second expedition intoHonduras, carrying letters to theAudiencia of Santo Domingo and to the Crown, searching for a good location for a port on theCaribbean coast, to provide a link toNicaragua. The expedition was intercepted and captured bySandoval, who sent some of the Nicaraguan party back toCortés atTrujillo.[125] They informed Cortés of a plan by Hernández de Córdoba to set himself up in Nicaragua independently ofPedrarias Dávila inPanama.[129] Cortés responded courteously and offered supplies while the expedition was passing through Honduras, but sent letters advising Hernández de Córdoba to remain loyal to Pedrarias Dávila.[130]
Hernández was able to collect a substantial amount of gold in Nicaragua, collecting more than 100,000pesos of gold in a single expedition; this was consequently seized by Pedrarias Dávila.[131] In May 1524, Hernández sent a brigantine back to Panama with theRoyal fifth, which amounted to 185,000 goldpesos.[132] By 1525, Spanish power had been consolidated in western Nicaragua, and reinforcements had arrived fromNatá, in Panama, which had become a key port of call for shipping between Nicaragua and Panama.[133]
The friendly contacts betweenHernán Cortés andFrancisco Hernández de Córdoba were viewed with deep suspicion by those inLeón who remained loyal toPedrarias Dávila, such asHernando de Soto, Francisco de Compañón, and Andrés de Garabito. These officers may also have been motivated by ambition to view Hernández de Córdoba's contact with Cortés as treachery against Pedrarias Dávila.[134] Hernández de Córdoba's position inNicaragua was consolidated by his foundation of three colonial towns there, although his contract for conquest specifically limited his license to two years from the day he sailed fromPanama. Hernández de Córdoba's growing claim over the territory may also have caused Pedrarias Dávila to view his contacts with Cortés with deep suspicion, and a threat to Dávila's own claim.[135]
Rumours, encouraged by Hernández de Córdoba's enemies, spread quickly in the colony that he was plotting with Cortés.[136] About a dozen supporters of Hernando de Soto and Francisco de Compañón secretly plotted against Hernández de Córdoba; he responded by seizing de Soto and imprisoning him inGranada.[137] De Soto and de Compañón fled Nicaragua with several companions, and took word to Pedrarias Dávila in Panama, arriving there in January 1526.[138]
Pedrarias Dávila set out fromNata by sea with soldiers and artillery, and landed on the island ofChira, in theGulf of Nicoya, opposite the colonial settlement of Bruselas on the mainland (then within the jurisdiction ofNicaragua, but now inCosta Rica). There he established a base of operations, and the indigenous inhabitants received him in peace; from these Dávila learned thatHernández de Córdoba had evacuated Bruselas a few days previously.[138] During his stay, Dávila ordered the construction and placement at the island’s port of a cross carried out by indigenous artisans, destroyed an indigenous religious ceremony building and based on some sources replaced it with a church while getting the indigenous people to participate in a religious ceremony.[139]Dávila waited in Chira for reinforcements led byHernando de Soto, who marched overland fromPanama with two units of infantry and cavalry.[140] Dávila subsequently arrested his wayward lieutenant Hernández de Córdoba and ordered his execution.[94]
In 1526, Pedrarias Dávila was replaced as governor ofCastilla del Oro;Diego López de Salcedo, governor ofHonduras, took advantage of the change in leadership to extend his jurisdiction to includeNicaragua. He marched to Nicaragua with 150 men to impose his authority. He arrived inLeón in spring of 1527, and was accepted as governor byMartín de Estete, Pedraria Dávila's lieutenant there. His poor government soured relations with the colonists, and provoked the restless natives of northern Nicaragua into open revolt against Spanish authority.[141]Pedro de los Ríos, the new governor inPanama, moved into Nicaragua to challenge López de Salcedo, but was rejected by the colonists and was ordered back to Panama by the governor of Honduras.[142] Meanwhile, Dávila had vociferously protested to the Spanish crown over his loss of governorship of Castilla del Oro, and in recompense was given the governorship of Nicaragua. López de Salcedo prepared to retreat back to Honduras, but was prevented by Martín de Estete and the Nicaraguan colonists, who now pledged their allegiance to Pedrarias Dávila. López de Salcedo's officials were arrested.[143]
León became the capital of the Nicaraguan colony, and Dávila transferred there as governor of the province in 1527.[94] He arrived in León in March 1528, and was accepted everywhere as the rightful governor. He immediately imprisonedLópez de Salcedo and held him for almost a year, refusing to allow him to return toHonduras. Eventually his release was negotiated by intermediaries, and he renounced all claims to territory beyond a line fromCape Gracias a Dios toLeón and theGulf of Fonseca. López de Salcedo returned to Honduras as a broken man early in 1529. This agreement settled the jurisdictional disputes between Nicaragua and Honduras.[143]
Pedrarias Dávila introduced European farming methods and became infamous for his harsh treatment of the natives.[94] In 1528 to 1529, friarFrancisco de Bobadilla of theMercedarian Order was very active, and baptised over 50,000 natives among theSubtiaba,Diriá (a tribe of theChorotega), andNicarao.[107]
In 1530, an alliance ofMatagalpa tribes launched a concerted attack against the Spanish, with the intention of burning the colonial settlements. In 1533,Pedrarias Dávila requested reinforcements to pursue the Matagalpa and punish their revolt, in order to discourage neighbouring peoples from allying with them against the Spanish.[26]
By 1543, Francisco de Castañeda foundedNueva Segovia in north-centralNicaragua, some 30leagues fromLeón.[144] By 1603, the Spanish had established their dominion over seventeen indigenous settlements in the north-central region that the Spanish named Segovia. The Spanish drafted warriors from these settlements to assist in putting down ongoing indigenous resistance inOlancho, inHonduras.[145]
From relatively soon afterEuropean contact, theAtlantic coast of what is nowNicaragua fell under the influence of theEnglish.[146] This region was inhabited by natives that remained beyond Spanish control, and was known to the Spanish asTologalpa.[147] Tologalpa is poorly defined in colonial Spanish documentation;Tololgalpa andTaguzgalpa together comprised an extensive region stretching along theCaribbean coast eastwards fromTrujillo, or theAguan River, to theSan Juan River, and as far back as the Chontalean Mountain Range (Cordillera de Chontales).Taguzgalpa was that part of the region that now falls within the modern borders of Honduras, andTologalpa was that part that now falls within Nicaragua.[148] However, together they formed one single Province that was created by a Royal Order of February 10, 1576.[149] From the second half of the 17th century, both regions were together known asMosquitia.[149] Very little is known about the original inhabitants of Mosquitia, beyond that they included theJicaque,Miskito, andPaya.[150]
In 1508,Diego de Nicuesa was given the governorship of theGovernorate of Veragua, a region stretching along theCaribbean coast of Central America from theBelén River in Panama toCape Gracias a Dios on the Nicaragua-Honduras border.[151] As governor, he organized an expedition to colonize the land with his men, starting fromPanama. However it failed once they reached theRío Coco of the swampy and inhospitableMosquitia.[152]
In 1534, a license to conquer and colonize the region was issued toFelipe Gutiérrez y Toledo, governor ofVeragua, who abandoned his plans to settle the area.[153] In 1545, governor ofGuatemalaAlonso de Maldonado wrote to the king of Spain, explaining thatTaguzgalpa was still beyond Spanish control, and that its inhabitants were a threat to those Spanish living on the borders of the region. In 1562, a new license of conquest was issued to the governor of Honduras,Alonso Ortiz de Elgueta, who sent pilot Andrés Martín to scout the coast fromTrujillo as far as the mouth of theSan Juan River. Martín founded the settlement of Elgueta on the shore ofCaratasca Lagoon (in Honduran Taguzgalpa), which was soon moved inland, to vanish from history. Around the same time, conquistadorJuan Dávila launched several self-funded expeditions into the interior ofTologalpa, without success.[154]
In 1641 or 1652, a shipwreckedslave ship gave rise to theMiskito Sambu, when surviving Africans intermixed with the indigenous coastal groups. The Miskito Sambu developed strong ties to English colonists that settled inJamaica from 1655 onwards, and with groups of English colonists that had settled along the Mosquito Coast. They became the dominant coastal group, allying or subjugating other groups in the region.[155]
When theCaptaincy General of Guatemala declared itself independent of Spain in 1821, most of Mosquitia was still well outside of Spanish control.[151] It wasn't until 1894 thatJosé Zelaya formally incorporated the territory into Nicaragua as theZelaya Department.
Within a century of the conquest, theNicarao were effectively eliminated by a combination of theslave trade, disease, and warfare.[21]Other factors that led to the decimation of the indigenous population include shifts in the indigenous economy, social, political organization, psychological fear or trauma, excessive labor exploitation, rupture of communities and abuse inflicted by the Spanish during the following years of colonization of the region.[156]It is estimated that as many as half a million slaves were exported fromNicaragua before 1550, although some of these had originally come from other parts ofCentral America.[157] AlthoughGil González Dávila had initially recovered a significant amount of gold, Spanish hopes of extracting great quantities of gold from the province proved ephemeral.[158] Even when sources of gold were found, the collapse of native population levels meant that the Spanish were unable to work the mines. In 1533, the Spanish noted that although gold had been found in Santa María de la Buena Esperanza, about 25 leagues fromLeón, a measles epidemic had killed so many natives that there were none left to extract the ore.[159] By the end of the 16th century, Nicaragua contained a relatively modest 500 Spanish colonists.[160]
Gil González Dávila wrote a number of letters in 1524 describing his discovery ofNicaragua, including a letter to 16th-century chroniclerGonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés containing his most complete account of his actions there.[161] Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés dedicated the entire 16-chapter Book IV of the Third Part of hisHistoria general de las Indias (General History of the Indies) to Nicaragua, which was published inSeville in 1535. He had himself lived in Nicaragua for a year and a half, from the very end of 1527 through to July 1529. His chronicle includes an account of the discovery of Nicaragua by Gil González Dávila.[162] ChroniclerAntonio de Herrera y Tordesillas described the first voyage of Gil González Dávila andAndrés Niño in Chapter 5 of Book IV of hisHistoria General de los hechos de los castellanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar Oceáno (General History of the deeds of the Castilians in the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea).[69]Francisco Hernández de Córdoba's foundation of the colonial towns ofLeón andGranada was described in a letter to the king of Spain, written byPedrarias Dávila in 1525.[163]Dominican friarBartolomé de las Casas included an account of the discovery of Nicaragua byJuan de Castañeda andHernán Ponce de León in hisHistoria de las Indias (History of the Indies).[164] Juan de Castañeda wrote his own account of his voyage of discovery, now contained in the national archives ofCosta Rica;[165] it was written in 1522.[83]
