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Spain remained neutral throughoutWorld War I between 28 July 1914 and 11 November 1918, and despite domestic economic difficulties,[1] it was considered "one of the most important neutral countries in Europe by 1915".[2] Spain had maintained a non-aligned stance during thepolitical difficulties of pre-warEurope, and continued its neutrality after the war until theSpanish Civil War began in 1936.[2] While there was no direct military involvement in the war,German forces were interned inSpanish Guinea in late 1915.
The Spanish prime minister,Eduardo Dato, aConservative, declared neutrality byRoyal Decree on 7 August 1914:[3]
"Existent, sadly, the state of war betweenAustria,Hungary andSerbia [...] the Government ofHis Majesty believes in the duty to order the strictest neutrality to Spanish subjects."
Dato was applauded for this in theCortes when they reconvened on 30 October. Opinion among the public was divided. The upper classes (the aristocracy and the rich bourgeoisie), the Catholic Church and theSpanish Army generally favoured theCentral Powers, usually identified withGermany. Among political parties, the Germanophile tendency was represented among the reactionaryCarlists and the conservativeMauristas, followers ofAntonio Maura, who himself favoured closer ties with theAllies because of Spain's1907 pact with Britain and France, which was designed to head off German colonialism in north Africa. Pro-Allied sentiment, which was generally Francophile, was most common among the middle and professional classes and intellectuals. It was common amongCatalan nationalists,Republicans andSocialists. A fewLiberals, includingÁlvaro de Figueroa, leader of the opposition in theCortes, were also pro-Allied,[4] along withMiguel de Unamuno and other select members of the Spanish intelligentsia.[5][6]
TheItalian government's initial neutrality was a key factor in the Spanish government also being able to declare itself neutral.[7] ThePact of Cartagena of 1907 provided that the Spanish fleet would support theFrench Navy in case of war with theTriple Alliance. This anticipated Franco/Spanish naval co-operation against the combined fleets of theKingdom of Italy andAustria-Hungary in the Mediterranean Sea, while theRoyal Navy focused on theNorth Sea against theImperial German Navy. The French fleet alone could not contain the Italian and Austro-Hungarian fleets together while transporting its colonial troops from North Africa to the European continent.[8][7]
Throughout 1914-18 theSpanish Army continued to be maintained on a peacetime basis without the extendedmobilisation measures of other neutral nations (Netherlands,Denmark,Switzerland andSweden) in closer proximity to areas of actual fighting. Except in Morocco, Spanish troops continued to wear colourful dress uniforms for parade and off-duty wear; a feature that quickly disappeared in all armies directly involved in the war.[9]
The main rifle of the Spanish Army at this time was a version of the Mauser, manufactured inOviedo in 7 mm caliber, known as theMauser Model 1893 rifle.[10] To this was added a small number of machine guns such as theMaxim gun,Hotchkiss M1909 and even theM1895 Colt. However, the number of machine guns per company or division was much lower than in the rest of the European countries. The artillery was made up of cannons made byKrupp or various versions of the Schneider cannon made inTrubia andSeville. Most were being used in theRif War being fought in northern Morocco (Rif), where Spain had been granted aprotectorate.
TheSpanish Navy was barely a shadow of its former self, though it was starting to rebuild. Its best units were the dreadnoughtEspaña and the pre-dreadnoughtPelayo and, under construction, the dreadnoughtsAlfonso XIII andJaime I. The navy had the armored cruisersCarlos V,Princesa de Asturias,Cataluña, the protected cruisersRío de la Plata(es:Río de la Plata),Extremadura(es:Extremadura),Reina Regente, the unprotected cruiserInfanta Isabel and, under construction, the light cruiserVictoria Eugenia. In addition to seven destroyers: four of theFuror class and, under construction, three newBustamante class, which were joined by the fourRecalde class andÁlvaro de Bazán class gunboats, in addition to other older ones such as theMac-Mahón or theTemerario.
Finally, the massive construction ofT-1 class torpedo boats [es] began, of which six had already been enlisted, together with the olderOrión,Habana andHalcón torpedo boats, and finally the typical conglomerate of tugboats, cutters, gunboats and small boats.
In short, the Spanish Navy of 1914 was composed largely of older ships that were not sunk near Cuba and the Philippines during theSpanish–American War, either because they survived the naval battles or because they were part ofAdmiral Cámara's fleet, which had not been involved in the conflict. Other ships had been recently built under theFerrándiz Plan.
The Military Aeronautics (predecessor of theSpanish Air Force) had just been created in 1913, so it had few units. All the planes were bombers, since the fighters did not appear until well into the war. Of biplanes it hadFarman MF.7,Farman MF.11,Lohner B.I; and monoplanes with severalMorane-Saulnier G andNieuport II, which together formed the Military Aeronautics, to which a few more biplanes and the first seaplanes of the Naval Aeronautics would later be added.
Spanish neutrality left the country outside the technological advances derived from war needs, so that, at the end of the war in November 1918, the Spanish Military Aviation was in a situation of clear inferiority in means compared to those of the other neighbouring countries.
Though it remained one of the few neutral countries in mainland Europe, Spain was still affected by the conflict in a variety of ways.
Economically Spain experienced both positive and negative consequences from the war. Spanish maritime trade was significantly impacted by German U-boat campaigns, with an estimated 100 lives and 66 ships lost to submarines.[14] Though Spanish industry in the north and the east of the country expanded as demand rose among the warring powers for Spanish goods, the inflow of capital produced inflation. Furthermore, imports dropped, and this combination exacerbated the poverty of the rural areas and the south. The growing poverty intensified internal migration to the industrial areas, and the railway system was unable to bear the increased demand. Spain experienced a scarcity in food commodities.[15] The shortage of basic commodities became known as thecrisis de subsistencias. In 1915, food riots erupted in some cities,[15] and in December 1915, the government resigned, to be replaced by a Liberal government under Figueroa.[16]
In July 1916, the two main trade unions, the socialistUnión General de Trabajadores and theanarcho-syndicalistConfederación Nacional del Trabajo, joined forces to put pressure on the Liberal government. In March 1917, they even threatened to start ageneral strike. Their example inspired military officers to form unions of their own, thejuntas de defensa. The officers' goal was to prevent the passage of the Bill of Military Reform tabled in theCortes in 1916, that sought to professionalise the military by introducing intellectual and physical tests as prerequisites for promotions; the ultimate goal being a reduction in the size of the bloated officers corps. Thejuntas de defensa demanded that promotions and pay increases continue to be based strictly on seniority.[17]
The war also had a significant impact on the construction program of the Spanish Navy. The second and thirdEspaña-classbattleships, built in Spain between 1910 and 1919, were delayed significantly because of material shortages from Britain.[18] Most importantly, themain battery guns forJaime I did not arrive until 1919, after the war had ended.[19] The projectedReina Victoria Eugenia-class battleships, which also would have relied heavily on imported guns and armour plate, were cancelled outright after the war started.[20]
Also significant were the social impacts of the war. Though Spain as a whole was neutral throughout the war, the conflict split the country into groups of 'Francophiles' and 'Germanophiles' who each sympathised with the opposing Entente and Central Powers, the rift being only deepened by the ongoing U-boat campaign which continued to impact Spanish ships.[21] The army, clergy and conservatives were inclined to be pro-German whereas merchants, liberals, republicans and most of the public leaned towards the Allied cause.[15] Intellectuals were divided.[15]
The Spanish public became aware of the harsh realities of the war itself by contact with a migratory influx of approximately 10,000 Spanish workers who returned home from Belgium, France and Germany.[14]
Spanish journalists also acted as war correspondents near the battlefront, keeping the public informed with regard to the conflict and conditions, with opposing viewpoints in these reports often also contributing to the varying sympathies of the country and the divide as a whole.[14]
As early as August 1914, some Spaniards were volunteering to enlist in theFrench Army, mainly joining theForeign Legion. In 1915, they founded their own magazine,Iberia, to defend and propagate their cause. In February 1916, theComitè de Germanor (Committee of Brotherhood) was set up in Barcelona to recruit for the Legion. Over 2,000 Spaniards ultimately served in the Legion.[22] KingAlfonso XIII also tried to help in the war by creating theEuropean War Office.
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In 1916, the Fernando Po Affair threatened Spanish neutrality. British, French and Belgian forces had occupiedGerman Cameroon, forcing 6,000Schutztruppe (indigenouscolonial troops led by German officers) to retreat into neighbouringSpanish Guinea. While formally interned on the Spanish colonial island ofFernando Po, this formidable force of well-disciplined troops continued to drill and train under German control.[23]
Perceiving an ongoing threat to their own African possessions, the Allies threatened to invade the Spanish colony. The Spanish Government was able to defuse the situation by transferring the German officers to Spain itself while the AfricanSchutztruppe remained on Fernando Po until theArmistice of 11 November 1918.[24][25]
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