These milestones delivered the company much-needed investment and SpaceX sought todiversify its sources of income. In 2019, the first operational satellite of theStarlink internetsatellite constellation came online. In subsequent years, Starlink generated the bulk of SpaceX's income and paved the way for itsStarshield military counterpart. In 2020, SpaceX began to operate itsDragon 2 capsules to deliver crewed missions for NASA and private entities. Around this time, SpaceX began building test prototypes forStarship, which is the largest launch vehicle in history and aims to fully realize the company's vision of a fully reusable, cost-effective and adaptable launch vehicle. SpaceX is also developing its ownspace suit andastronaut via itsPolaris program[13] as well as developing thehuman lander for lunar missions under NASA'sArtemis program.[14] SpaceX is not publicly traded; a space industry newspaper estimated that SpaceX has a revenue of over$10 billion in 2024.[4]
In early 2001,Elon Musk metRobert Zubrin and donated$100,000 to hisMars Society, joining its board of directors for a short time.[15]: 30–31 He gave aplenary talk at their fourth convention where he announcedMars Oasis, a project to land agreenhouse and grow plants on Mars.[16][17] Musk initially attempted to acquire aDnepr launch vehicle for the project through Russian contacts fromJim Cantrell.[18]
Musk returned with his team to Moscow, this time bringingMichael Griffin, who later became the 11thAdministrator of NASA, but found the Russians increasingly unreceptive.[19][20] On the flight home, Musk announced he could start a company to build the affordable rockets they needed instead.[20] By applyingvertical integration,[19] using inexpensivecommercial off-the-shelf components when possible,[20] and adopting themodular approach of modern software engineering, Musk believed SpaceX could significantly cut launch costs.[20]
In early 2002, Elon Musk started to look for staff for his company, soon to be named SpaceX. Musk approached five people for the initial positions at the fledgling company, including Griffin, who declined the position of Chief Engineer,[21]: 11 Jim Cantrell and John Garvey (Cantrell and Garvey later founded the companyVector Launch), rocket engineerTom Mueller, and Chris Thompson.[21][22] SpaceX was first headquartered in a warehouse inEl Segundo, California. Early SpaceX employees, such asTom Mueller (CTO),Gwynne Shotwell (COO), and Chris Thompson (VP of Operations), came from neighboringTRW andBoeing corporations. By November 2005, the company had 160 employees.[23] Musk personally interviewed and approved all of SpaceX's early employees.[21]: 22
Musk has stated that one of his goals with SpaceX is to decrease the cost and improve the reliability of access tospace, ultimately by a factor of ten.[24]
In 2004, SpaceX protested against NASA to theGovernment Accountability Office (GAO) because of a sole-source contract awarded toKistler Aerospace. Before the GAO could respond, NASA withdrew the contract, and formed theCOTS program.[21]: 109–110 [29] In 2005, SpaceX announced plans to pursue a human-rated commercial space program through the end of the decade, a program that would later become theDragon spacecraft.[30] In 2006, the company was selected by NASA and awarded$396 million to provide crew and cargo resupply demonstration contracts to the International Space Station (ISS) under theCOTS program.[31]
The first two Falcon 1 launches were purchased by theUnited States Department of Defense under theDARPA Falcon Project which evaluated new U.S. launch vehicles suitable for use in hypersonic missile delivery forPrompt Global Strike.[26][32][33] The first three launches of the rocket, between 2006 and 2008, all resulted in failures, which almost ended the company. Financing for Tesla Motors had failed, as well,[34] and consequentlyTesla,SolarCity, and Musk personally were all nearly bankrupt at the same time.[21]: 178–182 Musk was reportedly "waking from nightmares, screaming and in physical pain" because of the stress.[21]: 216
The financial situation started to turn around with the first successful launch achieved onthe fourth attempt on September 28, 2008. Musk split his remaining$30 million between SpaceX and Tesla, and NASA awarded the firstCommercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract awarding$1.6 billion to SpaceX in December, thus financially saving the company.[21]: 217–221 Based on these factors and the further business operations they enabled, the Falcon 1 was soon retired following itssecond successful, and fifth total, launch in July 2009. This allowed SpaceX to focus company resources on the development of a larger orbital rocket, the Falcon 9.[35]Gwynne Shotwell was also promoted to company president at the time, for her role in successfully negotiating the CRS contract with theNASA Associate AdministratorBill Gerstenmaier.[36][21]: 222
SpaceX originally intended to follow its light Falcon 1 launch vehicle with an intermediate capacity vehicle, theFalcon 5.[37] The company instead decided in 2005 to proceed with the development of theFalcon 9, areusableheavier lift vehicle. Development of the Falcon 9 was accelerated byNASA, which committed to purchasing several commercial flights if specific capabilities were demonstrated. This started with seed money from theCommercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program in 2006.[38] The overall contract award was$278 million to provide development funding for theDragon spacecraft, Falcon 9, and demonstration launches of Falcon 9 with Dragon.[38] As part of this contract, the Falcon 9 launched for the first time in June 2010 with theDragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit, using a mockup of the Dragon spacecraft.
The first operational Dragon spacecraft was launched in December 2010 aboardCOTS Demo Flight 1, the Falcon 9's second flight, and safely returned to Earth after two orbits, completing all its mission objectives.[39] By December 2010, the SpaceX production line was manufacturing one Falcon 9 and Dragon every three months.[40]
In April 2011, as part of its second-roundCommercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, NASA issued a$75 million contract for SpaceX to develop an integratedlaunch escape system for Dragon in preparation for human-rating it as a crew transport vehicle to the ISS.[41] NASA awarded SpaceX a fixed-priceSpace Act Agreement (SAA) to produce a detailed design of the crew transportation system in August 2012.[42]
In early 2012, approximately two-thirds of SpaceX stock was owned by Musk[43] and his seventy million shares were then estimated to be worth$875 million onprivate markets,[44] valuing SpaceX at$1.3 billion.[45] In May 2012, with theDragon C2+ launch, Dragon became the first commercial spacecraft to deliver cargo to theInternational Space Station.[46] After the flight, the company private equity valuation nearly doubled to$2.4 billion or$20/share.[47][48] By that time, SpaceX had operated on total funding of approximately$1 billion over its first decade of operation. Of this, private equity provided approximately$200 million, with Musk investing approximately$100 million and other investors having put in about$100 million.[49]
SpaceX's active reusability test program began in late 2012 with testing low-altitude, low-speed aspects of the landing technology.[50] TheFalcon 9 prototypes performed vertical takeoffs and landings (VTOL). High-velocity, high-altitude tests of thebooster atmospheric return technology began in late 2013.[50]
Launch of Falcon 9 carryingORBCOMM OG2-M1, July 2014
SpaceX launched the first commercial mission for a private customer in 2013. In 2014, SpaceX won nine contracts out of the 20 that were openly competed worldwide.[51] That yearArianespace requested that European governments provide additionalsubsidies to face the competition from SpaceX.[52][53] Beginning in 2014, SpaceX capabilities and pricing also began to affect the market for launch of U.S. military payloads, which for nearly a decade had been dominated by the large U.S. launch providerUnited Launch Alliance (ULA).[54] The monopoly had allowed launch costs by the U.S. provider to rise to over$400 million over the years.[55] In September 2014, NASA's Director of Commercial Spaceflight, Kevin Crigler, awarded SpaceX the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) contract to finalize the development of the Crew Transportation System. The contract included several technical and certification milestones, an uncrewed flight test, a crewed flight test, and six operational missions after certification.[42]
In January 2015, SpaceX raised$1 billion in funding fromGoogle andFidelity Investments, in exchange for 8.33% of the company, establishing the company valuation at approximately$12 billion.[56] The same month SpaceX announced the development of a new satellite constellation, calledStarlink, to provide global broadband internet service with 4,000 satellites.[57]
The Falcon 9 had its first major failure in late June 2015, when the seventh ISS resupply mission,CRS-7 exploded two minutes into the flight. The problem was traced to a failed two-foot-long steel strut that held aheliumpressure vessel, which broke free due to the force ofacceleration. This caused a breach and allowed high-pressure helium to escape into the low-pressurepropellant tank, causing the failure.[58]
SpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage in December 2015 withFalcon 9 Flight 20.[59] In April 2016, the company achieved the first successful landing on the autonomous spaceport drone ship (ASDS)Of Course I Still Love You in the Atlantic Ocean.[60] By October 2016, following the successful landings, SpaceX indicated they were offering their customers a 10% price discount if they choose to fly their payload on a reused Falcon 9 first stage.[61]
A second major rocket failure happened in early September 2016, when a Falcon 9 exploded during a propellant fill operation for a standard pre-launchstatic fire test. The payload, theAMOS-6 communications satellite valued at$200 million, was destroyed.[62] The explosion was caused by theliquid oxygen that is used as propellant turning so cold that it solidified and ignited withcarbon composite helium vessels.[63] Though not considered an unsuccessful flight, the rocket explosion sent the company into a four-month launch hiatus while it worked out what went wrong. SpaceX returned to flight in January 2017.[64]
In March 2017, SpaceX launched a returned Falcon 9 for theSES-10 satellite. This was the first time a re-launch of a payload-carrying orbital rocket went back to space.[65] The first stage was recovered again, also making it the first landing of a reused orbital class rocket.[66]
2017–2018: Leading global commercial launch provider
In July 2017, the company raised$350 million, which raised its valuation to$21 billion.[67] In 2017, SpaceX achieved a 45% global market share for awarded commercial launch contracts.[68] By March 2018, SpaceX had more than 100 launches on its manifest representing about$12 billion in contract revenue.[69] The contracts included both commercial andgovernment (NASA/DOD) customers.[70] This made SpaceX the leading global commercial launch provider measured by manifested launches.[71]
In 2017, SpaceX formed a subsidiary,The Boring Company,[72] and began work to construct a short test tunnel on and adjacent to the SpaceX headquarters and manufacturing facility, using a small number of SpaceX employees,[73] which was completed in May 2018,[74] and opened to the public in December 2018.[75] During 2018, The Boring Company wasspun out into a separatecorporate entity with 6% of the equity going to SpaceX, less than 10% to early employees, and the remainder of the equity to Elon Musk.[75]
Since 2019: Starship, first crewed launches, Starlink and general
In 2019 SpaceX raised$1.33 billion of capital across three funding rounds.[76] By May 2019, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to$33.3 billion[77] and reached$36 billion by March 2020.[78]
On August 19, 2020, after a$1.9 billion funding round, one of the largest single fundraising pushes by any privately held company, SpaceX's valuation increased to$46 billion.[79][80][81]
In February 2021, SpaceX raised an additional$1.61 billion in an equity round from 99 investors[82] at a per share value of approximately$420,[81] raising the company valuation to approximately$74 billion. By 2021, SpaceX had raised more than$6 billion in equity financing. Most of the capital raised since 2019 has been used to support the operational fielding of the Starlink satellite constellation and the development and manufacture of the Starship launch vehicle.[82] By October 2021, the valuation of SpaceX had risen to$100.3 billion.[83] On April 16, 2021, Starship HLS won a contract to play a critical role in the NASA crewed spaceflightArtemis program.[84] By 2021, SpaceX had entered into agreements withGoogle Cloud Platform andMicrosoft Azure to provide on-ground computer and networking services forStarlink.[85] A new round of financing in 2022 valued SpaceX at$127 billion.[86]
In August 2022,Reuters reported that theEuropean Space Agency (ESA) began initial discussions with SpaceX that could lead to the company's launchers being used temporarily, given that Russia blocked access toSoyuz rockets amid theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[92] Since that invasion and in the greater war between Russia and Ukraine, Starlinkwas extensively used.[93]
In 2022, SpaceX's Falcon 9 also became the world record holder for the most launches of a single vehicle type in a single year.[94][95][non-primary source needed] SpaceX launched a rocket approximately every six days in 2022, with 61 launches in total. All but one (a Falcon Heavy in November) was on a Falcon 9 rocket.[94]
In November 2023, SpaceX announced it would acquire its parachute supplierPioneer Aerospace out of bankruptcy for$2.2 million.[96][97]
On July 16, 2024, Elon Musk posted onX that SpaceX would move its headquarters fromHawthorne, California, toSpaceX Starbase inBrownsville, Texas. Musk said this was because the recently passed CaliforniaAB1955 bill "and the many others that preceded it, attacking both families and companies".[98] This new law in California bans school districts from requiring that teachers notify parents about changes to a student's sexual orientation and gender identity.[99] The headquarters officially moved toBrownsville, Texas in August 2024, according to records filed with the California Secretary of State.[100] The move to relocate SpaceX's headquarters was seen as largely symbolic, at least in the short term. The Hawthorne facility continues to support the company's Falcon launch vehicles, which was SpaceX's workhorse product in 2024.[101]
SpaceX's 2024Polaris Dawn mission featured the first-ever private spacewalk, marking a major milestone in commercial space exploration.[102]
In 2025,ProPublica reported that Chinese investors were investing in SpaceX via offshore entities, such as theCayman Islands. Experts speculated that this might raise national security concerns with regulators.[103] Later in 2025 ProPublica reported that Chinese equity ownership in SpaceX likely extended to direct investment, citing the court testimony of investor Iqbaljit Kahlon.[104]
By July 2025, as part of $5 Billion equity raise SpaceX agreed to invest $2 billion inxAI.[105]
Starship in launch positionDragon's Flight: SpaceX Crew-10 launches aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket carrying the Dragon spacecraft piloted by astronaut and Air Force Maj. Nichole "Vapor" Ayer at Kennedy Space Center, FL, March 14, 2025.
In January 2019, SpaceX announced it would lay off 10% of its workforce to help finance theStarship andStarlink projects.[106] The purpose of the Starship vehicle is to enable large-scale transit of humans and cargo to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.[107] SpaceX's Starship is the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown, with a planned payload capacity of 100+ tons.[108][109] Construction of initial prototypes and tests for Starship started in early 2019 in Florida and Texas. All Starship construction and testing moved to the newSpaceX South Texas launch site later that year.
On April 20, 2023, Starship'sfirst orbital flight test ended in a mid-air explosion over theGulf of Mexico before booster separation. After launch, multiple engines in the booster progressively failed, causing the vehicle to reachmaxq later than planned. "Max q" is the theoretical point of maximal mechanical stress which occurs during the launch sequence of a space vehicle. In the case of a rocket that must be self-destructed during its ascent, max q occurs at the point of self-destruction. Eventually, the vehicle lost control and spun erratically until the automatedflight termination system was activated, which intentionally destroyed the rocket. Elon Musk, SpaceX, and other individuals familiar with the space industry have referred to the test flight as a success.[110][111]
Musk said at the time that it would take "six to eight weeks" to get the infrastructure prepared for another launch. In October 2023, a senior SpaceX executive stated the company had been ready to launch the next test flight since September. He accused government regulators of disrupting the project's progress, adding the delay could lead to China beating U.S. astronauts back to the Moon.[112][113]
On November 18, 2023, SpaceX launched Starship on itssecond flight test, with both vehicles flying for a few minutes before separately exploding.[114][115][116][117]
In early March 2024 SpaceX announced that it was targeting March 14 as the tentative launch date for its next uncrewed Starship launch configuration flight test, pending the issuance of a "launch license" by theFAA. This license was granted on March 13, 2024.[118] On March 14, 2024, at 13:25 UTC,Starship launched for the third time and for the first time Starship reached its planned suborbital trajectory. The flight ended with the booster experiencing a malfunction shortly before landing and the ship being lost during re-entry over the Indian Ocean.[108][109]
On June 4, 2024, SpaceX received the launch license forStarship's fourth flight test. The licensure itself was notable in that it was the first time that the FAA included a clause that would allow SpaceX to launch subsequent test flights without a mishap investigation, provided that they met a similar launch profile and used the same specification of hardware. The provision could prove to speed the development timeline.[119]
On October 12, 2024, SpaceX received FAA approval forStarship's fifth flight test.[120] The flight was the first without engine failures, and the first successful tower catch.[121]
SpaceX launched Starship on itssixth flight test on November 19, 2024.[122] The booster aborted the catch attempt, while the ship conducted a relight in space.[123][124]
On January 16, 2025, SpaceX launched Starship on itsseventh flight test, with the first Block 2 Ship, Ship 33 (standing at 403 ft or 123 meters). This test also carried a demonstration payload, a Starlink V3 simulator. The test launched at 22:37 UTC. The test resulted in the second catch of the Super Heavy booster, B14, but after 8 minutes, SpaceX lost contact with 'Ship', which is the upper stage of the Starship which resulted in the failure of the ship during the ascent. The spacecraft reportedly exploded around 8.5 minutes after launch over the Atlantic Ocean near theTurks and Caicos Islands. The FAA, on January 18, required a mishap investigation of the failure.[125]
On March 7, 2025, SpaceX launched another Starship rocket, this time from Texas. Contact was lost minutes into the test flight and the spacecraft came tumbling down and broke apart, with wreckage seen across Florida's skies.[126] As per preliminary investigation, Starship's 7th test flight was disrupted by an oxygen leak, flashes and sustained fires in its aft section, which caused the rocket's engines to shut down and turn on the spacecraft's self-destruct system.[127]
On June 18, 2025, a SpaceX Starship rocket exploded during a static fire test at the company's Starbase facility in Texas, following what the company described as a “major anomaly”.[128]
NASA astronauts Douglas Hurley (left) and Robert Behnken (right) wearing custom-fit spacesuits designed by SpaceX.
A significant milestone was achieved in May 2020, when SpaceX successfully launched two NASA astronauts (Doug Hurley andBob Behnken) into orbit on aCrew Dragon spacecraft duringCrew Dragon Demo-2, making SpaceX the first private company to send astronauts to the International Space Station and marking the first crewed orbital launch from American soil in 9 years.[129][130] The mission launched fromKennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) in Florida.[131]
In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first large batch of 60 Starlink satellites, beginning to deploy what would become the world's largest commercial satellite constellation the following year.[132] In 2022, most SpaceX launches focused on Starlink, a consumer internet business that sends batches of internet-beaming satellites and now has over 6,000 satellites in orbit.[133]
In December 2022, the U.S.Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the launch of up to 7,500 of SpaceX's next-generation satellites in its Starlink internet network.[136]
In September 2025, SpaceX said it would purchase the rights to use some ofEchoStar's spectrum for $17 billion in a cash and stock deal. The company said it would use the spectrum as a foundation for Starlink's direct-to-cell business around the globe.[137]
The landing of aFalcon 9 Block 5 first stage at Cape Canaveral in July 2019.VTVL technologies are used in many of SpaceX's launch vehicles.
SpaceX has developed three launch vehicles. The small-liftFalcon 1 was the first launch vehicle developed and was retired in 2009. The medium-liftFalcon 9 and the heavy-liftFalcon Heavy are both operational.
Falcon 1 was a small rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms intolow Earth orbit. It launched five times between 2006 and 2009, of which two were successful.[158] The Falcon 1 was the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to reach orbit.[138]
Falcon 9 is amedium-lift launch vehicle capable of delivering up to 22,800 kilograms (50,265lb) to orbit, competing with theDelta IV and theAtlas V rockets, as well as other launch providers around the world. It has nineMerlin engines in its first stage. TheFalcon 9 v1.0 rocket successfully reached orbit on its first attempt on June 4, 2010. Its third flight,COTS Demo Flight 2, launched on May 22, 2012, and launched the firstcommercial spacecraft to reach and dock with the International Space Station (ISS).[46] The vehicle was upgraded toFalcon 9 v1.1 in 2013,Falcon 9 Full Thrust in 2015, and finally toFalcon 9 Block 5 in 2018. The first stage of Falcon 9 is designed to retro propulsively land, be recovered, and flown again.[159]
Both the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy are certified to conduct launches for theNational Security Space Launch (NSSL).[163][164] As of November 23, 2025, the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy have been launched 579 times, resulting in 576 full mission successes, one partial success, andone in-flight failure. In addition, a Falcon 9 experienceda pre-flight failure before a static fire test in 2016.[165][166]
SpaceX is developing a fully reusable super-heavy lift launch system known asStarship. It comprises a reusable first stage, calledSuper Heavy, and the reusableStarship second stage space vehicle. As of 2017[update], the system was intended to supersede the company's existing launch vehicle hardware by the early 2020s.[167][168]
Merlin is a family of rocket engines that usesliquid oxygen (LOX) andRP-1 propellants. Merlin was first used to power the Falcon 1's first stage and is now used on both stages of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles.[173] Kestrel uses the same propellants and was used as the Falcon 1 rocket's second-stage main engine.[170][174]
Raptor is a new family of liquid oxygen and liquidmethane-fueledfull-flow staged combustion cycle engines to power the first and second stages of the in-developmentStarship launch system.[169] Development versions were test-fired in late 2016,[176] and the engine flew for the first time in 2019, powering theStarhopper vehicle to an altitude of 20 m (66 ft).[177]
The currently operational second-generationDragon 2 spacecraft conductedits first flight, without crew, to the ISS in early 2019, followed bya crewed flight of Dragon 2 in 2020.[129] It was developed with financial support from NASA under theCommercial Crew Program program. Thecargo variant of Dragon 2 flew for the first time in December 2020, for a resupply to the ISS as part of the CRS contract with NASA.[178]
In March 2020 SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL, designed as a resupply spacecraft for NASA's plannedLunar Gateway space station under aGateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract.[179] Dragon XL is planned to launch on theFalcon Heavy, and is able to transport over 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to the Gateway. Dragon XL will be docked at the Gateway for six to twelve months at a time.[180]
SpaceX routinely returns thefirst stage of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets after orbital launches. The rocket lands at a predetermined landing site using only its propulsion systems.[183] When propellant margins do not permit a return to a launch site (RTLS), rockets return to a floating landing platform in the ocean, calledautonomous spaceport drone ships (ASDS).[184]
SpaceX also had plans to introducefloating launch platforms, which would be modified oil rigs provide a sea launch option for theirStarship launch vehicle. As of February 2023, SpaceX had sold the oil rigs, but had not ruled out sea-based platforms for future use.[185]
Sixty Starlink satellites stacked together before deployment
Starlink is an internet satellite constellation under development by Starlink Services, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of SpaceX,[9][186] that consists of thousands of cross-linkedcommunications satellites in ~550km orbits. Its goal is to address the significant unmet demand worldwide for low-cost broadband capabilities.[187] Development began in 2015, and initial prototype test-flight satellites were launched on the SpaceXPaz satellite mission in 2017. In May 2019, SpaceX launched the first batch of 60 satellites aboard a Falcon 9.[188] Initial test operation of the constellation began in late 2020[189] and first orders were taken in early 2021.[190] Customers were told to expect internet service speeds of 50 Mbit/s to 150 Mbit/s and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms.[191] In December 2022, Starlink reached over 1 million subscribers worldwide.[192]
The planned large number ofStarlink satellites has been criticized by astronomers due to concerns overlight pollution,[193][194][195] with the brightness of Starlink satellites in both optical and radio wavelengths interfering with scientific observations.[196] In response, SpaceX has implemented several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their brightness.[197] The large number of satellites employed by Starlink also creates long-term dangers ofspace debris collisions.[198][199] However, the satellites are equipped withkrypton-fueledHall thrusters which allow them tode-orbit at the end of their life. They are also designed to autonomously avoid collisions based on uplinked tracking data.[200]
In December 2022, SpaceX announcedStarshield, a program to incorporate military or government entity payloads on board a Starlink-derived satellite bus. TheSpace Development Agency is a key customer procuring satellites for a space-basedmissile defense system.[201][202]
In June 2024, SpaceX introduced a compact version of its Starlink antennas, the "Starlink Mini", designed for mobile satellite internet use. Offered for$599 in an early access release, it was more expensive than the base model. The Mini antenna, half the size and one-third the weight of the Standard version, featured a built-inWiFi router, lower power consumption, and over 100 Mbit/s download speeds.[203]
In June 2015, SpaceX announced that it would sponsor aHyperloop competition, and would build a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) longsubscale test track near SpaceX's headquarters for the competitive events.[204][205] The company held the annual competition from 2017 to 2019.[206]
In collaboration with doctors and academic researchers, SpaceX invited all employees to participate in the creation of aCOVID-19 antibody-testing program in 2020. As such, 4300 employees volunteered to provide blood samples resulting in apeer-reviewed scientific paper crediting eight SpaceX employees as coauthors and suggesting that a certain level of COVID-19 antibodies may provide lasting protection against the virus.[207][208]
In July 2018, Musk arranged for his employees to build amini-submarine to assist therescue of children stuck in a flooded cavern in Thailand.[209]Richard Stanton, leader of the international rescue diving team, encouraged Musk to facilitate the construction of the vehicle as a backup in case flooding worsened. However, Stanton later concluded that the mini-submarine would not work and said that Musk's involvement "distracted from the rescue effort".[210][211] Engineers at SpaceX andThe Boring Company built the mini-submarine from a Falcon 9liquid oxygen transfer tube in eight hours and personally delivered it to Thailand.[212][213] Thai authorities ultimately declined to use the submarine, stating that it wasn't practical for the rescue mission.[209]
SpaceX is headquartered at theSpaceX Starbase nearBrownsville, Texas, where it manufactures and launches its Starship vehicle. However most of the company's operations are based out of its office inHawthorne, California where it was previously headquartered, where it builds Falcon rockets and Dragon spacecraft, and where it houses its mission control.
The company also operates a Starlink satellite manufacturing facilities in Redmond, Washington, arocket development and test facility inMcGregor, Texas,[214] and maintains an office in the Washington, D.C. area, close to key government customers.[215]
SpaceX has two active launch sites in Florida, one active launch site in California and one active launch site at Starbase in Texas.
Hawthorne, CA: Falcon and Dragon manufacturing, mission control
SpaceX operates a large facility in the Los Angeles suburb ofHawthorne, California. The three-story building, originally built byNorthrop Corporation to buildBoeing 747 fuselages,[216] houses SpaceX's office space, mission control, and Falcon 9 manufacturing facilities.[217]
The Hawthorne facility was SpaceX's headquarters until August 2024. However, the move to relocate SpaceX's headquarters was seen as largely symbolic, at least in the short term, as the facility will remain to the company's operations.[218]
SpaceX manufactures and flies Starship test vehicles from theSpaceX Starbase inBoca Chica nearBrownsville, Texas, having announced first plans for the launch facility in August 2014.[219][220] TheFederal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued the permit in July 2014.[221] SpaceX broke ground on the new launch facility in 2014 with construction ramping up in the latter half of 2015,[222] with the firstsuborbital launches from the facility in 2019[217] and orbital launches starting in 2023.
SpaceX has faced increased scrutiny over the environmental impact of its Starbase facility.[223][224][225] In August 2024, theTexas Commission on Environmental Quality cited SpaceX for violating environmental regulations by repeatedly releasing pollutants into water near the Boca Chica launch site.[226] TheEPA fined SpaceX approximately$150,000 for allegedly discharging "industrial wastewater" and violating theClean Water Act.[227]
McGregor, TX: Rocket Development and Test Facility
Aerial view of the SpaceX McGregor engine testing facility, 2008
SpaceX's Rocket Development and Test Facility inMcGregor, Texas is arocket engine test facility. Every rocket engine and thruster manufactured by SpaceX must pass through McGregor for final testing being used on flight missions.[228][229] The facility also serves as a testing ground for various components and engines during theresearch and development process.[230] In addition to engine testing, after splashdown and recovery,Dragon spacecraft make a stop at McGregor to have their hazardoushypergolic propellant fuels removed, before the capsules continue on to Hawthorne for refurbishment.[228]
SpaceX calls the facility the most advanced and active rocket engine test facility in the world, and said that as of 2024[update], over 7,000 tests had been conducted at the facility since it opened, with seven engine test fires on a typical day, across more than a dozen test stands.[231] Despite its low-profile compared to the company's other facilities, is a critical part of SpaceX's operations, and company president and COOGwynne Shotwell maintains her primary office in McGregor.[232][228]
Originally the site of theBluebonnet Ordnance Plant during World War II,[230] the facility was later used byBeal Aerospace before being leased by SpaceX in 2003.[233] The company has since expanded it significantly from 256 acres (104 ha) in 2003[230] to 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) by 2015.[231] In July 2021, SpaceX announced plans to build a second production facility for Raptor engines at McGregor. This expansion is expected to significantly increase SpaceX's production capacity, with the goal of producing 800 to 1,000 Raptor engines per year.[234][235]
Starlink user terminal on the sidewalk of a residential home.
SpaceX'sStarlink subsidiary operates over two main facilities. Satellite manufacturing takes place nearSeattle, Washington while user terminal manufacturing takes place nearAustin, Texas.
Starlink's satellite development and manufacturing operations campus occupies over 314,000 square feet (29,200 m2) in at least six buildings located inRedmond, Washington, east of Seattle. The first building opened in early 2015,[236] and the company later expanded into five buildings on the Redmond Ridge Corporate Center.[237][238]
Starlink opened a user terminal manufacturing facility just outside ofBastrop, Texas, east of Austin in December 2023. In its first nine months of operation, the one-million-square-foot (93,000 m2) facility produced one million user terminals and was on track to become the largest factory forprinted circuit boards in the United States.[239]
Falcon Heavy Side Boosters landing onLZ1 and LZ2 at Cape Canaveral
SpaceX operates fourorbital launch sites, atCape Canaveral Space Force Station andKennedy Space Center in Florida andVandenberg Space Force Base in California for Falcon rockets, andStarbase nearBrownsville, Texas for Starship. SpaceX has indicated that they see a niche for each of the four orbital facilities and that they have sufficient launch business to fill each pad.[240] The Vandenberg launch site enables highly inclined orbits (66–145°), while Cape Canaveral and Kennedy enable orbits of medium inclination (28.5–55°).[241] Larger inclinations, includingSSO, are possible from Florida by overflying Cuba.[242]
Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 4 (SLC-4E) was leased from the military in 2011 and is used for payloads to polar orbits. The Vandenberg site can launch both Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy vehicles,[249] but cannot launch to low inclination orbits. The neighboring SLC-4W was converted toLanding Zone 4 in 2015 for booster landings.[250]
On April 14, 2014, SpaceX signed a 20-year lease forKennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A.[251] The pad was subsequently modified to supportFalcon 9 andFalcon Heavy launches. As of 2024[update] it is the only pad that supports Falcon Heavy launches. SpaceX launched itsfirst crewed mission to the ISS from Launch Pad 39A on May 30, 2020.[252] Pad 39A has been prepared since 2019 to eventually accommodate Starship launches. With delays in launch FAA permits for Boca Chica, Texas, the 39A Starship preparation was accelerated in 2022.[253]
SpaceX won demonstration and actual supply contracts fromNASA for the International Space Station (ISS) with technology the company developed. SpaceX is also certified forU.S. military launches ofEvolved Expendable Launch Vehicle-class (EELV) payloads. With approximately thirty missions on the manifest for 2018 alone, SpaceX represented over$12 billion under contract.[70]
In 2006, SpaceX won a NASACommercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Phase 1 contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to the ISS, with a possible contract option for crew transport.[254] Through this contract, designed by NASA to provide "seed money" through Space Act Agreements for developing new capabilities, NASA paid SpaceX$396 million to develop the cargo configuration of the Dragon spacecraft, while SpaceX developed the Falcon 9 launch vehicle with their resources.[255] TheseSpace Act Agreements have been shown to have saved NASA millions of dollars in development costs, making rocket development 4–10 times less expensive than if produced by NASA alone.[256]
Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) is a series of contracts awarded by NASA from 2008 to 2016 for the delivery of cargo and supplies to the ISS on commercially operated spacecraft. The first CRS contracts were signed in 2008 and awarded$1.6 billion to SpaceX for 12 cargo transport missions, covering deliveries to 2016.[259]SpaceX CRS-1, the first of the 12 planned resupply missions, launched in October 2012, achieved orbit, berthed, and remained on station for 20 days, beforere-entering the atmosphere and splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.[260]
CRS missions have flown approximately twice a year to the ISS since then. In 2015, NASA extended the Phase 1 contracts by ordering an additional three resupply flights from SpaceX, and then extended the contract further for a total of twenty cargo missions to the ISS.[261][259][262] The final Dragon 1 mission,SpaceX CRS-20, departed the ISS in April 2020, andDragon was subsequently retired from service. Asecond phase of contracts was awarded in January 2016 with SpaceX as one of the awardees. SpaceX will fly up to nine additional CRS flights with the upgradedDragon 2 spacecraft.[263][264] In March 2020, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop theDragon XL spacecraft to send supplies to theLunar Gateway space station. Dragon XL will be launched on a Falcon Heavy.[265]
NASA astronauts inside the Dragon spacecraft during theCrew-1 mission rendezvous with the International Space Station
SpaceX is responsible for the transportation of NASA astronauts to and from the ISS. The NASA contracts started as part of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, aimed at developing commercially operated spacecraft capable of delivering astronauts to the ISS. The first contract was awarded to SpaceX in 2011,[266][267] followed by another in 2012 to continue development and testing of itsDragon 2 spacecraft.[268]
In September 2014, NASA chose SpaceX and Boeing as the two companies that would be funded to develop systems to transport U.S. crews to and from the ISS.[269] SpaceX won$2.6 billion to complete and certify Dragon 2 by 2017. The contracts called for at least one crewed flight test with at least one NASA astronaut aboard. Once Crew Dragon received NASA human-spaceflight certification, the contract required SpaceX to conduct at least two, and as many as six, crewed missions to the space station.[269]
SpaceX completed the first key flight test of its Crew Dragon spacecraft, aPad Abort Test, in May 2015,[270] and successfully conducted a full uncrewed test flight in early 2019. The capsule docked to the ISS and then splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean.[271] In January 2020, SpaceX conducted anin-flight abort test, the last test flight before flying crew, in which the Dragon spacecraft fired its launch escape engines in a simulated abort scenario.[272]
SpaceX also offers paidcrewed spaceflights for private individuals. The first of these missions,Inspiration4, launched in 2021 on behalf ofShift4 Payments CEOJared Isaacman. The mission launched theCrew DragonResilience from the FloridaKennedy Space Center'sLaunch Complex 39A atop aFalcon 9 launch vehicle, placed the Dragoncapsule intolow Earth orbit, and ended successfully about three days later when theResilience splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean. All four crew members received commercial astronaut training from SpaceX. The training included lessons in orbital mechanics, operating in a microgravity environment, stress testing, emergency-preparedness training, and mission simulations.[278]
TheFalcon 9 v1.1 was certified forNational Security Space Launch (NSSL) in 2015, allowing SpaceX to contract launch services to the Air Force for any payloads classified under national security.[163] This broke the monopoly held since 2006 byUnited Launch Alliance (ULA) over U.S. Air Force launches of classified payloads.[282] In April 2016, the U.S. Air Force awarded the first such national security launch to SpaceX to launch the secondGPS III satellite for$82.7 million.[283] This was approximately 40% less than the estimated cost for similar previous missions.[284] SpaceX also launched the third GPS III launch on June 20, 2020.[285] In March 2018, SpaceX secured an additional$290 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three GPS III satellites.[286]
The U.S.National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) also purchased launches from SpaceX, with the first taking place on May 1, 2017.[287] In February 2019, SpaceX secured a$297 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch another three national security missions, all slated to launch no earlier than FY 2021.[288] In August 2020, theU.S. Space Force awarded its National Security Space Launch (NSSL) contracts for the following 5–7 years. SpaceX won a contract for$316 million for one launch. In addition, SpaceX will handle 40% of the U.S. military's satellite launch requirements over the period.[289]
SpaceX also designs and launchescustom military satellites for theSpace Development Agency as part of a new missile defense system in low Earth orbit.[290] The constellation would give the United States capabilities to sense, target and potentially intercept nuclear missiles and hypersonic weapons launched from anywhere on Earth.[291] Both China and Russia brought concerns to the United Nations about the program,[292] and various organizations warn it could be destabilizing and trigger anarms race in space.[293][294]
In March 2024, Reuters reported that, as part of a$1.8 billion contract signed with the National Reconnaissance Office in 2021, SpaceX is building a network of hundreds ofspy satellites. This new network, Reuters reported, would be able to operate as a swarm in low orbits.[295]
In December 2024, WSJ reported that Musk didn't have access to government secrets.[296]
SpaceX's low launch prices, especially forcommunications satellites flying togeostationary transfer orbit (GTO), have resulted in market pressure on its competitors to lower their own prices.[19] Prior to 2013, the openly competed comsat launch market had been dominated by Arianespace (flying theAriane 5) andInternational Launch Services (flying theProton).[297] With a published price of$56.5 million per launch tolow Earth orbit, Falcon 9 rockets were the least expensive in the industry.[298] European satellite operators are pushing the ESA to reduce launch prices of theAriane 5 andAriane 6 rockets as a result of competition from SpaceX.[299]
SpaceX ended the United Launch Alliance (ULA) monopoly of U.S. military payloads when it began to compete for national security launches. In 2015, anticipating a slump in domestic, military, and spy launches, ULA stated that it would go out of business unless it won commercial satellite launch orders.[300] To that end, ULA announced a major restructuring of processes and workforce to decrease launch costs by half.[301][302]
Congressional testimony by SpaceX in 2017 suggested that the NASASpace Act Agreement process of "setting only a high-level requirement for cargo transport to the space station [while] leaving the details to industry" had allowed SpaceX to design and develop the Falcon 9 rocket on its own at a substantially lower cost. According to NASA's own independently verified numbers, SpaceX's total development cost for the Falcon 9 rocket, including the Falcon 1 rocket, was estimated at$390 million. In 2011, NASA estimated that it would have cost the agency about$4 billion to develop a rocket like the Falcon 9 booster based upon NASA's traditional contracting processes, about ten times more.[256] In May 2020, NASA administratorJim Bridenstine remarked that thanks to NASA's investments into SpaceX, the United States has 70% of the commercial launch market, a major improvement since 2012 when there were no commercial launches from the country.[303]
As of 2024, SpaceX operates a Rideshare and Bandwagon (mid inclination) programs. This provides additional competition for small satellite launchers.[304]
In November 2022, the company announced COO Gwynne Shotwell and vice presidentMark Juncosa would oversee Starbase, its Texas launch facility, along with Omead Afshar, who at the time oversaw operations for Tesla in Texas. Shyamal Patel, who was senior director of operations at the site, would shift to its Cape Canaveral site.CNBC reported that these executive moves demonstrated "the sense of urgency within the company to get Starship flying".[349][350][351]
According to The New York Times, SpaceX has likely paid little to no federal income taxes due totax loss deferral of up to $5.4bn in deferred losses, but has privately told investors that it may never realize some or all of those losses.[352]
According to former NASA deputy administratorLori Garver, the company overall has a male-dominated employee culture, similar to that of the spaceflight industry in general.[353] In December 2021, claims of workplace sexual harassment from five former SpaceX employees, ranging from interns to full engineers, were published.[354] The former employees claimed to have experienced unwanted advances and uncomfortable interactions.[355] Additionally, the accounts included claims of a culture ofsexual harassment existing at the company and one where complaints made to executives, managers, and human resources officers went largely unaddressed.[356]
In May 2022, a Business Insider article alleged that Musk engaged in sexual misconduct with a SpaceX flight attendant in a private jet in 2016 citing an anonymous friend of the flight attendant.[357] In response, some employees collaborated on an open letter condemning "Elon's harmful Twitter behavior".[358] It also asks the company to clearly define SpaceX's "no-asshole" and "zero tolerance" policies, which it says is unequally enforced from one employee to the next. The next day, Gwynne Shotwell announced that those employees who were involved with the letter had been terminated and claimed that unsponsored, unsolicited surveys were sent to employees during the work day and that some felt pressured to sign the letter.[359]
The company has also been described as having a work culture that pushes employees to work excessively and is described as fostering aburnout culture.[360] According to a memo byBlue Origin, a rival aerospace company with a history of lawsuits and anti-SpaceX political lobbying,[361][362][363] SpaceX expected very long work hours, work on weekends, and limited use of holidays.[360]
"SpaceX employees say they’re paying the price for the billionaire’s push to colonize space at breakneck speed" reported Reuters in 2023. An examination of OSHA's records revealed injury rates higher than the industry's averages. In addition, Reuters documented at least 600 previously unreported workplace injuries at SpaceX, including "crushed limbs, amputations, electrocutions, head and eye wounds and one death."[364][365] The person who died was Lonnie LeBlanc, a former United States Marine.
In June 2024, eight ex-employees, the same who had previously been fired for penning the open letter against Elon Musk, filed a lawsuit against Musk and SpaceX alleging sexual harassment and discrimination.[366][367][368] The lawsuit has since stalled on headquarter jurisdiction grounds.[369][370]
^"Commercial Market Assessment for Crew and Cargo Systems"(PDF).nasa.gov. NASA. April 27, 2011. p. 40.Archived(PDF) from the original on December 7, 2014. RetrievedJune 10, 2015.SpaceX has publicly indicated that the development cost for Falcon 9 launch vehicle was approximately $300million. Additionally, approximately $90million was spent developing the Falcon 1 launch vehicle which did contribute to some extent to the Falcon 9, for a total of $390million. NASA has verified these costs.
^abCopeland, Rob (December 17, 2018)."Elon Musk's New Boring Co. Faced Questions Over SpaceX Financial Ties".The Wall Street Journal.Archived from the original on December 18, 2018. RetrievedDecember 18, 2018.When the Boring Co. was earlier this year spun into its own firm, more than 90% of the equity went to Mr. Musk and the rest to early employees... The Boring Co. has since given some equity to SpaceX as compensation for the help... about 6% of Boring stock, "based on the value of land, time and other resources contributed since the creation of the company".
^Madler, Mark R. (April 7, 2025)."SpaceX Is Still Big Locally".Los Angeles Business Journal. RetrievedAugust 10, 2025.Still, SpaceX maintains a manufacturing plant in Hawthorne to develop and build the Falcon 9 rocket with hundreds of employees doing the work.
^McDowell, Jonathan (May 19, 2024)."Starlink Launch Statistics".Jonathan's Space Pages.Archived from the original on May 17, 2024. RetrievedMay 19, 2024.
^"Falcon 9 & Falcon Heavy".SpaceX Info.Archived from the original on July 21, 2020. RetrievedFebruary 3, 2021.The v1.2 design was constantly improved upon over time, leading to different sub-versions or "Blocks". The initial design, flying on the maiden flight was thus referred to as Block 1. The final design which has largely stayed static since 2018 is the Block 5 variant.
^abGwynne Shotwell (March 17, 2015)."Statement Of Gwynne Shotwell, President & Chief Operating Officer, Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (SpaceX)"(PDF).Congressional testimony. US House of Representatives, Committee On Armed Services Subcommittee On Strategic Forces.Archived(PDF) from the original on January 28, 2016. RetrievedJanuary 11, 2016.SpaceX's 4,000 acre Rocket Development Facility in Central Texas includes 12 test stands that support engine component testing; design, qualification and acceptance testing of Merlin engines; structural testing of the first and second stages; and fully integrated stage testing for full mission durations. The state-of-the-art facility has remote and/or automatic controls and high-speed data acquisition systems, and post test data are available for analysis upon test completion.
^"2019 Missile Defense Review"(PDF). Office of the Secretary of Defense. November 1, 2019.Archived(PDF) from the original on January 18, 2019. RetrievedJune 21, 2022.
^"Space-based Missile Defense". Union of Concerned Scientists. August 30, 2018.Archived from the original on October 17, 2022. RetrievedDecember 1, 2021.
^ab"Elon Musk".tesla.com.Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. RetrievedDecember 31, 2020.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:"SEC Form D: Notice of sale of securities". United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). August 19, 2002.Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. RetrievedDecember 31, 2020.
^"Kimbal Musk".tesla.com.Archived from the original on October 25, 2020. RetrievedDecember 31, 2020.
^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain:Tzinis, Irene (June 12, 2020)."Ms. Gwynne Shotwell". NASA.Archived from the original on February 6, 2021. RetrievedDecember 31, 2020.
^Garver, Lori B. (2022).Escaping Gravity: My Quest to Transform NASA and Launch a New Space Age. Foreword by Walter Isaacson. New York: Diversion Publishing Corporation.ISBN978-1-63576-770-4.OCLC1328013856.As president and COO of SpaceX, Gwynne Shotwell is an effective and revered female leader in the space community [...] both companies have reputed "bro" cultures. Numerous charges of sexual harassment and discrimination have recently been made public by employees in both companies. [...] Progress toward diversity, equity, and inclusion has been much too slow.
^Free Law Project via Webarchive."Holland-Thielen v. Space Exploration Technologies Corp"(PDF).Superior Court of the State of California in and for the County of Los Angeles, Central Division (gov.uscourts.cacd.937580). RetrievedJuly 10, 2025.
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