Movatterモバイル変換

[0]ホーム
URL:

Jump to content
WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia
Search

Southern Athabaskan languages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Subfamily of Athabaskan languages
Southern Athabascan
Apachean
Geographic
distribution		Southwestern United States and northernMexico
Linguistic classificationDené–Yeniseian?
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-2 /5apa
Glottologapac1239
Historical distribution of Southern Athabaskan languages
PeopleApache
LanguageApache
CountryApachería

Southern Athabaskan (alsoApachean) is a subfamily ofAthabaskan languages spoken primarily in theSouthwestern United States (includingArizona,New Mexico,Colorado, andUtah) with two outliers inOklahoma andTexas. The languages are spoken in the northern Mexican states ofSonora,Chihuahua,Coahuila and to a much lesser degree inDurango andNuevo León. Those languages are spoken by various groups ofApache andNavajo peoples. Elsewhere, Athabaskan is spoken by many indigenous groups of peoples in Alaska, Canada, Oregon and northern California.

Self-designations for Western Apache and Navajo areN'dee biyat'i, andDiné bizaad orNaabeehó bizaad, respectively.

There are several well-known historical people whose first language was Southern Athabaskan.Geronimo (Goyaałé) who spokeChiricahua was a famous raider and war leader.Manuelito spokeNavajo and is famous for his leadership during and after theLong Walk of the Navajo.

Family division

[edit]

The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into two groups according to the classification ofHarry Hoijer: (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern.Plains Apache is the only member of the Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists ofWestern Apache,Navajo,Mescalero, andChiricahua. The Eastern subgroup consists ofJicarilla andLipan.

Hoijer's classification is based primarily on the differences of the pronunciation of the initialconsonant of noun and verb stems. His earlier 1938 classification had only two branches with Plains Apache grouped together with the other Eastern languages (i.e. with Jicarilla and Lipan).

Mescalero and Chiricahua are considered different languages even though they are mutually intelligible. Western Apache (especially the Dilzhe'evariety) and Navajo are closer to each other than either is to Mescalero/Chiricahua. Lipan Apache and Plains Apache are nearly extinct, and Chiricahua is severely endangered. Mescalero, Jicarilla, and Western Apache are considered endangered as well, with some children still learning the languages despite the number of child speakers continuing to diminish. Navajo is one of the most vigorous North American languages, but has still faced decline, with use among first-graders decreasing from 90% in 1968 to 30% in 1998.[1]

The Southern Athabaskan languages spoken in Mexico are regulated by theInstituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) and have the official status of national languages of Mexico. To revitalize the languages, the institute created a community based Language Planning Council with native speakers to establish and develop grammar rules and the normalization of the writing system, an official alphabet has been validated since then while other grammar topics are still in development.[2]

Phonology

[edit]
This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

All Southern Athabaskan languages are somewhat similar in theirphonology. The following description will concentrate onWestern Apache. One can expect minor variations for other related languages (such asNavajo,Jicarilla,Chiricahua).

Consonants

[edit]

Southern Athabaskan languages generally have a consonant inventory similar to the set of 33 consonants below (based mostly on Western Apache):

LabialAlveolarAlveolarLateralPalatalVelarGlottal
(affricate series)
Stop/
Affricate		unaspiratedpttstɬtʃk (kʷ)
aspiratedtʰtsʰtɬʰtʃʰkʰ (kʷʰ)
glottalizedtʼtsʼtɬʼtʃʼkʼʔ
prenasalized/
voiced		(ⁿb)(ⁿd/d/n)
Nasalsimplemn
glottalized(ˀm)(ˀn)
Fricativevoicelesssɬʃxh
voiced(v)zlʒɣ (ɣʷ)
Approximantj(w)
  • Only Navajo and Western Apache have glottalized nasals.

Orthography (consonants)

[edit]

The practical orthography corresponds to the pronunciation of the Southern Athabaskan languages fairly well (as opposed to the writing systems of English or Vietnamese). Below is a table pairing up the phonetic notation with the orthographic symbol:

IPAspellingIPAspellingIPAspellingIPAspelling
[t]d[tʰ]t[tʼ]t’[ j ]y
[k]g[kʰ]k[kʼ]k’[h]h
[ts]dz[tsʰ]ts[tsʼ]ts’[ʔ]’
[tʃ]j[tʃʰ]ch[tʃʼ]ch’[l]l
[tɬ]dl[tɬʰ]tł[tɬʼ]tł’[ɬ]ł
[p]b[pʰ]p[ⁿb]b/m[ⁿd]d/n/nd
[s]s[ʃ]sh[m]m[n]n
[z]z[ʒ]zh[ˀm]’m[ˀn]’n
[x]h      
[ɣ]gh      

Some spelling conventions:

  1. Fricatives[h] and[x] are both written ash.(see also #2 below)
  2. The fricative[x] is usually written ash, but aftero it may be written ashw, especially in Western Apache (may be pronounced[xʷ]).
  3. The fricative[ɣ] is writtengh the majority of the time, but beforei ande it is written asy (& may be pronounced[ʝ]), and beforeo it is written asw (& may be pronounced[ɣʷ]).
  4. All words that begin with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop’[ʔ]. This glottal stop is never written at the beginning of a word.
  5. Some words are pronounced either asd orn ornd, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as[ⁿd]. The same is true withb andm in a few words.
  6. In many wordsn can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic[n̩]. This is not indicated in the spelling.

Vowels

[edit]

Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in a general "practical" orthography):

FrontCentralBack
Highi
Mideo
Lowa

These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by anogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic˛ in Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua; in Jicarilla, the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel, results in 16 different vowels:

High-FrontMid-FrontMid-BackLow-Central
Oralshortieoa
longiieeooaa
Nasalshortįęǫą
longįįęęǫǫąą

IPA equivalents for Western Apache oral vowels:

i =[ɪ],ii =[iː],e =[ɛ],ee =[ɛː],o =[o],oo =[ʊː],a =[ɐ],aa =[ɑː].

InWestern Apache, there is a practice where orthographic vowelso andoo are written asu in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasalu never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently).

However, inHarry Hoijer and other American linguists' work allo-vowels are written aso. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographicu, consistently writing this vowel aso.

InChiricahua andMescalero, this vowel is written asu in all contexts (including nasalizedų).

Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages.

Tone

[edit]

Southern Athabaskan languages aretonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having four tones (using Americanist transcription system):

  • high (marked with acute accent´, Example:á)
  • low (marked with grave accent`, Example:à)
  • rising (marked with háčekˇ, Example:ǎ)
  • falling (marked with circumflexˆ, Example:â)

Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabicn (Example:ń).

The practical orthography has tried to simplify theAmericanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent and leaving low tone unmarked:

  • high tone:á
  • low tone:a

Then,niziz is written instead of the previousnìzìz.

Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second. It is vice versa for falling tone:

  • rising:aá (instead of Americanist:ǎ·)
  • falling:áa (instead of Americanist:â·)

Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone:ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (2006) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic¯, as inō,ǭ. InChiricahua, a falling tone can occur on a syllabicn:n̂.

Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length fromChiricahua Apache:

cha̧a̧  'feces'
chaa  'beaver'
shiban  'my buckskin'
shibán  'my bread'
bik’ai’  'his hip'
bík’ai’  'his stepmother'
hah’aał  'you two are going to chew it'
hah’ał  'you two are chewing it'

Comparative phonology

[edit]
[icon]
This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(June 2008)

The Southern Athabascan branch was defined byHarry Hoijer primarily according to itsmerger ofstem-initialconsonants of the Proto-Athabascan series*k̯ and*c into*c (in addition to the widespread merger of*č and*čʷ into*č also found in manyNorthern Athabascan languages).

Proto-
Athabascan		NavajoWestern
Apache		ChiricahuaMescaleroJicarillaLipanPlains
Apache
*k̯uʔs"handle fabric-like object"-tsooz-tsooz-tsuuz-tsuudz-tsoos-tsoos-tsoos
*ce·"stone"tsétséétsétsétsétsítséé

Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean*t and*k tok in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start witht, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with ak:

WesternEastern
NavajoWestern
Apache		ChiricahuaMescaleroJicarillaLipanPlains
Apache
"water"tótūtútúkókókóó
"fire"kǫʼkǫʼkųųkųko̱ʼkǫǫʼkǫʼ

He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the*k̯/*c merger, to consider Plains Apache to be equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with*k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start withch in Plains Apache, but the other languages start withts.

Proto-
Athabascan		NavajoChiricahuaMescaleroJicarillaPlains
Apache
*k̯aʔx̣ʷ"big"-tsaa-tsaa-tsaa-tsaa-cha

Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between both and their differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularlyMichael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when othersound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan*k̯/*c, Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer.

Other differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified and abbreviatedSwadesh list:

 NavajoChiricahuaWestern Apache
(San Carlos)		JicarillaLipan
Ishíshíshííshíshí
youniⁿdíⁿdiniⁿdí
wenihínáhínohwíínahínahí
manyłą́łą́łą́ą́łáłą́
oneła’ła’ła’-ła’ła’-
twonaakinaakinaakinaakinaaki
big-tso-tso-tso-tso-tso
long-neez-neez-neez-ⁿdees-ⁿdiis
small-yáázh-zą́ą́yé-zhaazh-zhááh-zhą́ą́yí
woman’asdzání’isdzáń’isdzánhń’isdzání’isdzání
mandinénⁿdénnéédiⁿdédiⁿdí
fishłóó’łóí’łógłógeełǫ́’
dogłééchą́ą́’íkéjaałį́į́chaayánéchíníínii’łį́
louseyaa’yaayaa’yaa’yaa
treetsintsinch’ilnooshchííchish
leaf-t’ąą’-t’ąą-t’ąą’-t’ąą’-t’ąą’
meat-tsį’-tsįį-tsį’-tsį-tsįį
blooddiłdiłdiłdiłdił
bonets’ints’į’ts’in-ts’in-ts’įh
grease-k’ahk’ahk’ahik'axáí
egg-yęęzhii-gheezhe-ghęęzh-yezhii-ghaish
horn-dee’-dee’-dee’-dee’-dii’
tail-tsee’-tsee’-tsee’-tsee’-dzistsii’
feather-t’a’-t’a’-t’a’-t’a’-t’a’
hair-ghaa’-ghaa-ghaa-ghaa’-ghaa
head-tsii’-tsii-tsii-tsii-tsii’
ear-jaa’-zhaa-jaa-jaa-jaa
eye-náá’-ⁿdáa-náá-ⁿdáá-ⁿdáa
nose-´-chį́į́h-´-chį́-chį́h-chį́sh-´-chį́sh
mouth-zéé’-zé-zé’-zé’-zí’
tooth-woo’-ghoo-ghoo’-woo-ghoo
tongue-tsoo’-zaade-zaad-zaadi-zaadi
claw-s-gaan-s-gan-gan-s-gan-s-gąą
foot-kee’-kee-kee’-kee-kii
knee-god-go’-god-go’-goh
hand-´-la’-laa-la’-la’-laa’

Grammar

[edit]
Main article:Southern Athabascan grammar

References

[edit]
  1. ^https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/09/us/indians-striving-to-save-their-languages.html Brooke, James. "Indians Striving to Save Their Languages." New York Times, p. A1, April 9, 1998.
  2. ^"Lengua N'dee/N'nee/Ndé".

Further reading

[edit]
  • Cremony, John Carey. 1868.Life Among the Apaches. A. Roman, 1868. Length 322 pages. Chapter XX discusses the Apache language, number system, and grammar.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages.American Anthropologist,40 (1), 75-87.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages.International Journal of American Linguistics,11 (1), 13-23.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes.International Journal of American Linguistics,11 (4), 193-203.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense.International Journal of American Linguistics,12 (1), 1-13.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers.International Journal of American Linguistics,12 (2), 51-59.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes.International Journal of American Linguistics,14 (4), 247–259.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex.International Journal of American Linguistics,15 (1), 12–22.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1956).The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages.International Journal of American Linguistics,22 (4), 219-232.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.),Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 1–29). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963).Studies in the Athapaskan languages. University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.),Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
  • Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology.International Journal of American Linguistics,22 (4), 291-297.
  • Liebe-Harkot, Marie-Louise. (1984). A comparison of Apachean languages, exemplified by the verb system for handling verbs. In H. Krenn, J. Niemeyer, & U. Eberhardt (Eds.),Sprache und Text: Akten des 18: Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Linz 1983. Linguistische Arbeiten (Max Niemeyer Verlag) (Nos. 145-146). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.ISBN 3-484-30145-7 (Bd. 1);ISBN 3-484-30146-5 (Bd. 2).
  • de Reuse, Willem J. (2001). Prototypes and fuzziness in the system and usage of Apachean classificatory verb stems. In S. Tuttle & G. Holton (Eds.),Proceedings of the 2001 Athabaskan Languages Conference (No. 1, pp. 75–94). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho.American Anthropologist,38 (2), 224-235.
  • Young, Robert W. (1983). Apachean languages. In A. Ortiz, W. C. Sturtevant (Eds.),Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 393–400). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN 0-16-004579-7.
Chiricahua
  • Hoijer, Harry. (n.d.). Chiricahua Apache stems. (Unpublished manuscript).
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1938).Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN 0-404-15783-1.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1939). Chiricahua loan-words from Spanish.Language,15 (2), 110-115.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Chiricahua Apache. In C. Osgood (Ed.),Linguistic structures in North America. New York: Wenner-Green Foundation for Anthropological Research.
  • Opler, Morris E., & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache.Language,42 (4), 617-634.
  • Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988).Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero[The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
  • Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's "Coyote and the Whiteman": Contact in and out of a Chiricahua narrative. In A. Trefzer & R. L. Murray (Eds.),Reclaiming Native American cultures, proceedings of the Native American Symposium (pp. 67–80). Durant, OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
  • Webster, Anthony K. (1999).Sam Kenoi's coyote stories: Poetics and rhetoric in some Chiricahua Apache narratives[dead link].American Indian Culture and Research Journal,23, 137-163.
  • Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Lisandro Medez's "Coyote and Deer": On reciprocity, narrative structures, and interactions.American Indian Quarterly,23, 1-24.
  • Webster, Anthony K. (2006). On Speaking to Him (Coyote): The Discourse Function of theyi-/bi- Alternation in Some Chiricahua Apache Narratives.Southwest Journal of Linguistics,25(2), 143-160.
Mescalero
  • Breunginger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; & Lathan, Ellen Ann. (1982).Mescalero Apache dictionary. Mescalero: NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1938).Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN 0-404-15783-1.
  • Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988).Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
  • Rushforth, Scott. (1991). Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs.International Journal of American Linguistics,57, 251-266.
Jicarilla
  • Goddard, Pliny Earle (1911).Jicarilla Apache texts. The Trustees. Retrieved24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 8). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Phone, Wilhelmina; Olson, Maureen; & Martinez, Matilda. (forthcoming).Abáachi mizaa łáo iłkee’ shijai: Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache. Axelrod, Melissa; Gómez de García, Jule; Lachler, Jordan; & Burke, Sean (Eds.). UNM Press. (Estimated publication date: summer 2006).
  • Phone, Wilma; & Torivio, Patricia. (1981).Jicarilla mizaa medaóołkai dáłáéé. Albuquerque: Native American Materials Development Center.
  • Tuttle, Siri G.; & Sandoval, Merton. (2002). Jicarilla Apache.Journal of the International Phonetic Association,32, 105-112.
  • Vicenti, Carson. (1981).Jicarilla Apache dictionary. Native American Materials Development Center, Ramah Navajo School Board.
  • Wilson, Alan, & Vigil Martine, Rita. (1996).Apache (Jicarilla). Guilford, CT: Audio-Forum.ISBN 0-88432-903-8. (Includes book and cassette recording).
Navajo
Main article:Navajo language § Bibliography
Western Apache
  • Basso, Keith H. (1979).Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-29593-9.
  • Basso, Keith H. (1990).Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.ISBN 0-8165-1323-6.
  • Basso, Keith H. (1996).Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.ISBN 0-8263-1724-3.
  • Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998).Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary. Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press.ISBN 0-927534-79-7.
  • Durbin, Marshall. (1964). A componential analysis of the San Carlos dialect of Western Apache: A study based on the analysis of the phonology, morphophonics, and morphemics. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York, Buffalo).
  • Goddard, Pliny Earle (1919).San Carlos Apache texts. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 3). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Goddard, Pliny Earle (1920).White Mountain Apache texts. The Trustees. Retrieved24 August 2012. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
  • Goodwin, Grenville. (1939).Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache. New York: American Folk-Lore Society (J. J. Augustin).ISBN 0-8165-1451-8
  • Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonetic structures of Western Apache.International Journal of American Linguistics,67 (4), 415-481.
  • Greenfeld, Philip J. (1971). Playing card names in Western Apache.International Journal of American Linguistics,37 (3), 195-196.
  • Greenfeld, Philip J. (1972). The phonological hierarchy of the White Mountain dialect of Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson).
  • Greenfeld, Philip J. (1978). Some special phonological characteristics of the White Mountain dialect of Apachean.Anthropological Linguistics,20 (1), 150-157.
  • Greenfeld, Philip J. (1984). A treatment for stress in Apache.International Journal of American Linguistics,50 (1), 105-111.
  • Hill, Faith. (1963). Some comparisons between the San Carlos and White Mountain dialects of Western Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.),Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 149–154). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Mierau, Eric. (1963). Concerning Yavapai-Apache bilingualism.International Journal of American Linguistics,29 (1), 1-3.
  • Potter, Brian. (1997). Wh/indefinites and the structure of the clause in Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
  • de Reuse, Willem J. (1993). Stylistic and dialectal variation in Western Apache phonology. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
  • de Reuse, Willem J. (2006).A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language. Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics 51. Lincom.ISBN 3-89586-861-2.
  • White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972).Western Apache dictionary. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
  • White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1983).New! keys to reading and writing Apache (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
Other
  • Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua.Linguistics,161, 5-38.
  • Bittle. 1963. “Kiowa–Apache.” InStudies in the Athapaskan Languages. (Ed. Hoijer, Harry). University of California Studies in Linguistics vol. 29. Berkeley: California UP. 76-101.

External links

[edit]
Northern
Southern Alaskan
Central Alaska–Yukon
Northwestern Canada
Central British Columbia
Other North Athabaskan
Pacific Coast
California Athabaskan
Oregon Athabaskan
Southern
Western Apachean
Eastern Apachean
Plains Apachean
Proto-language
Italics indicateextinct languages
National
Other
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&oldid=1317494837"
Categories:
Hidden categories:
[8]ページ先頭
©2009-2025 Movatter.jp