The region lies near the intersection ofgeological plates, with both heavy seismic and volcanic activities.[6] TheSunda plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries exceptMyanmar, northernThailand, northernLaos, northernVietnam, and northernLuzon of thePhilippines, while the Sunda plate only includes western Indonesia to as far east as the Indonesian province ofBali. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand,Peninsular Malaysia, and the Indonesian islands ofSumatra,Java,Bali,Lesser Sunda Islands, andTimor are part of theAlpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines and Indonesia as well asTimor-Leste are part of the PacificRing of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, particularly in thePhilippines andIndonesia.[7]
It covers about 4,500,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi), which is 8% ofEurasia and 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 675 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia.[8] The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups.[9] The eleven countries in the region are members of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational, and cultural integration among its members.[10]
Southeast Asia is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world. There are many different languages and ethnicities in the region. Historically, Southeast Asia was significantly influenced byIndian,Chinese,Muslim, andcolonial cultures, which became core components of the region's cultural and political institutions. Most modern Southeast Asian countries were colonised by European powers. European colonisation exploited natural resources and labour from the lands they conquered, and attempted to spread European institutions to the region.[11] Several Southeast Asian countries were also briefly occupied by theEmpire of Japan duringWorld War II. Theaftermath of World War II saw most of the region decolonised. Today, Southeast Asia is predominantly governed by independent states.[12]
The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as theEast Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred to the region asNanyang ("南洋"), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to asIndochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighbouring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the formerFrench Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as theMalay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of aMalay race.[13] Another term forMaritime Southeast Asia isInsulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina andAustralasia.[14]
The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his bookTravels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.[15] The term was officially used in the midst ofWorld War II by theAllies, through the formation ofSouth East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943.[16] SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia", although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded thePhilippines and a large part ofIndonesia while includingCeylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged.[17] Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of "Southeast Asia" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below.
TheUN Statistics Division for Asia are based on convenience rather than implying any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories:[31]
Some definitions of Southeast Asia may includeTaiwan. Taiwan has sometimes been included in Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but is not a member ofASEAN.[45] Likewise, a similar argument could be applied to somesouthern parts of mainland China, as well asHong Kong andMacau, may also considered as part of Southeast Asia as well as East Asia but are not members ofASEAN.[35]
The depiction of a bull found in theLubang Jeriji Saleh,Indonesia, in 2018, is considered among the world's oldest known figurative paintings. The painting is estimated to have been created around 40,000 to 52,000 years ago, or even earlier.Gunung Padang, the largest megalithic site in Southeast Asia.
The region was already inhabited byHomo erectus from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during theMiddle Pleistocene age.[46] DistinctHomo sapiens groups, ancestral to Eastern non-African (related to East Asians as well as Papuans) populations, reached the region by between 50,000BC to 70,000BC, with some arguing earlier.[47][48]Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves ofSulawesi andBorneo (Kalimantan).[49][50]Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.[51] During much of this time the present-day islands ofWestern Indonesia were joined into a single landmass with theMalay Peninsula known asSundaland due to much lower sea levels. TheGulf of Thailand was dry land which connected Sundaland withMainland Southeast Asia.
DistinctiveBasal-East Eurasian (Eastern non-African) ancestry was recently found to have originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively, giving rise to both Oceanian (Papuan related) and basal East Asian (Onge andTianyuan related) lineages.[48]
Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one Holocene hunter-gatherer fromSouth Sulawesi, had ancestry from both the Oceanian-related and East Asian-related branches of the Eastern non-African lineage. The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately ~50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry, modeled asOnge orTianyuan-like ancestry, and was positioned in between the Andamanese Onge and the Papuans of Oceania. The authors concluded that the presence of this ancestry in the Holocene hunter-gatherer suggests that East Asian-related admixture fromMainland Southeast Asia intoMaritime Southeast Asia may have taken place long before the expansion ofAustronesian societies. Geneflow of East Asian-related ancestry intoMaritime Southeast Asia andOceania could be estimated to ~25,000BC (possibly even earlier).[52]
The pre-Neolithic Oceanian-related populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East Asian-related populations, beginning about 50,000BC to 25,000BC years ago from Mainland Southeast Asia. East Asian-related ancestry was already widespread across Southeast Asia by 15,000BC, predating the expansion ofAustroasiatic andAustronesian peoples.[48]
Samples dated toc. 10,000–2000 BCE from theHoabinhian hunter-gatherer lithic techno-complex in Mainland Southeast Asia, which predated the Austronesian and Austroasiatic expansions, display the closest genetic affinities to basal East Asian lineages related to the Upper PaleolithicTianyuan man from northern China, as well as the prehistoricJōmon peoples of Japan. Compared to modern populations, they share the closest affinities to theAndamaneseOnge andJarawa, and theSemang (also known as "MalaysianNegritos") andManiq in the interior of the Malay Peninsula.[53][54][55][56][57]
In the lateNeolithic, theAustronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Timor-Leste, migrated to Southeast Asia fromTaiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as theAustronesian Expansion. They arrived in the northern Philippines between 7,000 BC to 2,200 BC and rapidly spread further into theNorthern Mariana Islands andBorneo by 1500 BC;Island Melanesia by 1300 BC; and to the rest ofIndonesia,Malaysia, southernVietnam, andPalau by 1000 BC.[58][59] They often settled along coastal areas, replacing and assimilating the diverse preexisting peoples. The remainders of these preexisting populations, known as Negritos, form small minority groups in geographically isolated regions.[60][61][48]
TheAustronesian peoples of Southeast Asia have beenseafarers for thousands of years. They spread eastwards toMicronesia andPolynesia, as well as westwards toMadagascar, becoming the ancestors of modern-dayMalagasy,Micronesians,Melanesians, andPolynesians.[62] Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast.[62] Gold fromSumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome.Pliny the Elder wrote in hisNatural History aboutChryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as thevinta, were capable to sail across the ocean.Magellan's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships.[63] Aslave from theSulu Sea was believed to have been used in theMagellan expedition as a translator.
Studies presented by theHuman Genome Organisation (HUGO) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay Peninsula 50,000–90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular theSemang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China.[64][65]
Solheim and others have shown evidence for aNusantao maritime trading network ranging fromVietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD.[66] TheBronze AgeDong Son culture flourished inNorthern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia.[67][68] The region entered theIron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighbouringChina.[46]
Bronze drum fromSông Đà, northern Vietnam. Mid-1st millennium BC
Most Southeast Asian people were originallyanimist, engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted byHinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contact withIndian subcontinent during the first century.[69] Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts.[70] Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process ofIndianisation in the region.[71][72][73]Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the first century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via theBay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving withBuddhism in the region.[74][75]Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the third century, via maritime trade routes between the region andSri Lanka.[76] Buddhism later established a strong presence inFunan region in the fifth century. In present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practised by the Thai, Burmese, andCambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu-influenced Khmer culture.Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route toNalanda.[71] It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practised by Indonesian andMalaysian Buddhists.
The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. TheMaluku Islands and New Guinea were never Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century whenIslam began to spread in those areas.[77] While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence.[78] In present-day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country whereits folk religion makes up the plurality.[79][80] Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government.[81] Elsewhere, there areethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resisted conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as theDayaks inKalimantan, theIgorots in Luzon, and theShans in eastern Myanmar.[82]
Hinduism expansion in Asia, from its heartland in Indian Subcontinent, to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia, started circa 1st century marked with the establishment of early Hindu settlements and polities in Southeast Asia.
After the region came under contact with the Indian subcontinentc. 400 BCE, it began a gradual process ofIndianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures, and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions.[83][72][73]Sanskrit andPali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of theIndosphere.[84] Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianisedc. ninth century whenKingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon.[85] Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods ofChinese domination it experienced.[86]
The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were thePyu city-states that already existed circa second century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China.[87] Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread.[88][89] In the first century, theFunan states centered inMekong Delta were established, encompassed modern-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia.[62] In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom wasSalakanagara, established in western Java circa second century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks asArgyre (Land of Silver).[90]
By the fifth century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such asMalacca andSunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such asSrivijaya,Tarumanagara, andMataram emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling bothStrait of Malacca andSunda Strait.[62] This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya wereinvaded by Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025.[91] The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as theKhmer Empire andKahuripan.[92] Continued commercial contacts with theChinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of theHindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.[note 1]
As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire's capitalAngkor hosts majestic monuments—such asAngkor Wat andBayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.[94] TheChampa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. TheVietnamese launched a massive conquest against theCham people during the1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.[95]
During the 13th century CE, the region experiencedMongol invasions, affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma andJava. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols tried to invadeĐại Việt andChampa.[96] The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states toYuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts.[97] The Mongols also invadedPagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smallerShan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty.[98][99] However, in 1297, a new local power emerged.Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing.[100][101] The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma.[102] In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys toSinghasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt byKadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince namedRaden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.[103][104]
After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established theMajapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grow into a regional power. Its greatest ruler wasHayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire's peak when other kingdoms in the southernMalay Peninsula,Borneo,Sumatra, andBali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts ofSulawesi,Maluku, and some areas ofwestern New Guinea and southernPhilippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history.[105]: 107 By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such asSamudera Pasai andMalacca Sultanate around the strategicStrait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of theEuropeans.[106][107]
Wapauwe Old Mosque is the oldest surviving mosque in Indonesia, and the second oldest in Southeast Asia, built in 1414
Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the eighth-century CE, when theUmayyads established trade with the region via sea routes.[108][109][110] However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history ofMaritime Southeast Asia. The IndianChola navy crossed the ocean and attacked theSrivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-daySumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditionalHindu faith, and converted to Islam with theSultanate of Kedah established in 1136.Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of MalaccaParameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit.Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholarHamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia andMalaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, AdmiralZheng He."[111]
There are several theories to theIslamization process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India, and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from South Arabia (Hadhramaut) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled inIndonesia,Singapore, andMalaysia. This is evident in the Arab-Indonesian,Arab-Singaporean, and Arab-Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port,Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes.Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.[112]
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence, and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country.[113]
Records from Magellan's voyage show thatBrunei possessed morecannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.[63]
Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess,Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marrySultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan.Hang Li Poh's Well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as isBukit Cina, where her retinue settled.
The strategic value of theStrait of Malacca, which was controlled bySultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writerTomé Pires, who wrote in theSuma Oriental: "Whoever is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat ofVenice."[114] (Venice was a major European trading partner, and goods were transported there via the Strait.)
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca,Maluku, and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spaniards years later, which they used totrade between Asia and Latin America. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch established theDutch East Indies; theFrench Indochina; and the BritishStrait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except forThailand.
Duit, a coin minted by theVOC, 1646–1667. 2 kas, 2 duit
European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such ashoney andhornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the 18th and 19th centuries, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence-level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilisations, hunting and gathering was still hard.[115]
Europeans broughtChristianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education fromEurope andRussia.
Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries.[130] The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.[130]
Most countries in the region maintain national autonomy.Democratic forms of government are practised in most Southeast Asian countries and human rights is recognised but dependent on each nation state. Socialist orcommunist countries in Southeast Asia include Vietnam and Laos.ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce and regional responses to international concerns.
Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and is also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to theCIA World Factbook). Geologically, theIndonesian Archipelago is one of the mostvolcanically active regions in the world. Geologicaluplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating inPuncak Jaya inPapua, Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,503 feet), on the island ofNew Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia isHkakabo Razi at 5,967 metres (19,577 feet) and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak,Mount Everest.
TheSouth China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea.
Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerouslyactive, holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuouseruption.[134]
Geographically, Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by theAustralian continent, the boundary between these two regions is most often considered to run throughWallacea.
Islands to the east of the Philippines make up the region ofMicronesia. These islands are not biogeographically, geologically or historically linked to mainland Asia, and are considered part of Oceania by theUnited Nations,The World Factbook, and other organisations.[135] The Oceania region is politically represented through thePacific Islands Forum, a governing body which, up until 2022, included Australia,New Zealand and all independent territories inMelanesia, Micronesia, andPolynesia. Several countries of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, are dialogue partners of the Pacific Islands Forum, but none have full membership.[136]
Maritime Southeast Asia was often grouped with Australia and Oceania in the mid to late 1800s, rather than with mainland Asia.[137] The term Oceania came into usage at the beginning of the 1800s, and the earlier definitions predated the advent of concepts such as Wallacea.
The non-continental Australian external territories ofChristmas Island andCocos (Keeling) Islands are sometimes considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia, as they lie in much closer proximity to western Indonesia than they do to mainland Australia.[138][139][140] They have amulticultural mix of inhabitants with Asian andEuropean Australian ancestry, and were uninhabited when discovered by the British during the 17th century.[141][142] The islands lie within the bounds of theAustralian Plate, and are defined byThe World Factbook as the westernmost extent of Oceania.[143][144] The United Nations also include these islands in their definition of Oceania, under the same subregion as Australia and New Zealand.[135]
Most of Southeast Asia has atropical climate that is hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shifts in winds ormonsoons. Thetropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rainforest is the second largest on Earth (with theAmazon rainforest being the largest). Exceptions to the typical tropical climate and forest vegetation are:
mountain areas in the northern region and the higher islands, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures
the"dry zone" of central Myanmar in therain shadow of theArakan Mountains, where annual rainfall can be as low as 600 millimetres or 24 inches, which under the hot temperatures that prevail is dry enough to qualify assemi-arid.
Southern areas inSouth Central Coast of Vietnam is marked with hotsemi-arid climate due to weak monsoon activities and high temperature throughout the year. Annual rainfall of this region varies between 400 millimetres or 16 inches to 800 millimetres or 31 inches, with an 8-month dry season.
Under the highest-emission scenario, Southeast Asian countries would see substantial reductions in seafood available from theirexclusive economic zones by 2050[146]
Southeast Asia lags behind onmitigation measures,[147] even though it is one of the mostvulnerable regions toclimate change in the world.[148] Climate change has already caused an increase inheavyprecipitation events (defined as 400 mm or more in a day)[149]: 1464 and greater increases are expected in this region. Changes in rainfall and runoff will also affect the quality of water supply used by theirrigation systems.[150] Under a high-warming scenario, heat-related deaths in the region could increase by 12.7% by 2100.[149]: 1508 Among the elderly inMalaysia, annual heat-related deaths may go from less than 1 per 100,000 to 45 per 100,000.[151]: 1 [152]: 23
Sea level rise is a serious threat. Along Philippine coasts, it occurs three times faster than the global average,[153] while 199 out of 514 cities and districts inIndonesia could be affected by tidal flooding by 2050.[154]Bangkok,Ho Chi Minh City andJakarta are amongst the 20 coastal cities which would have the world's highest annual flood losses in the year 2050.[149] Due toland subsidence, Jakarta issinking so much (up to 28 cm (11 in) per year between 1982 and 2010 in some areas[155]) that by 2019, the government had committed to relocate thecapital of Indonesia to another city.[156]
Climate change is also likely to pose a serious threat to the region's fisheries:[148] 3.35 million fishers in the Southeast Asia are reliant oncoral reefs,[149]: 1479 and yet those reefs are highly vulnerable to even low-emission climate change and will likely be lost if global warming exceeds 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)[157][158] By 2050–2070, around 30% of the region's aquaculture area and 10–20% of aquaculture production may be lost.[149]: 1491
Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerialvolcanoes (mostly at convergent boundaries), with a high density of volcanoes situated inIndonesia and thePhilippines.
The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterized as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands ofBorneo andSumatra, theorangutan, theAsian elephant, theMalayan tapir, theSumatran rhinoceros, and theBornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of thebinturong orbearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island ofPalawan is now classed as vulnerable. Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (theSumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (theMalayan tiger), and in Indochina (theIndochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species. TheKomodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands ofKomodo,Rinca,Flores, andGili Motang in Indonesia. ThePhilippine eagle is thenational bird of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world,[159][160] and is endemic to the Philippines' forests. Thewild water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species ofBubalus such asanoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays thedomestic Asian water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered. Themouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia), and in Palawan (Philippines). Thegaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.[161]
Birds such as thegreen peafowl anddrongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. Thebabirusa, a four-tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. Thehornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.
TheIndonesian Archipelago is split by theWallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java/Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only a few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to preventsoil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as theJavan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.
The shallow waters of theSoutheast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels ofbiodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish, and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in theRaja Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world's "center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity". Thewhale shark, the world's largest species of fish and 6 species ofsea turtles can also be found in theSouth China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.
The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate-climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged-over, especially in Borneo.
While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna,Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for variousendangered species such as orangutan and theSumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal andplant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century.[162] At the same time,haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in1997 and2006 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn" activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed theASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution.
The2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced the highestAPI level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.[163]
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First,Spaniards (Manila galleon) who sailed from the Americas andKingdom of Portugal, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British intoMalaya and parts of Borneo, the French intoIndochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam, and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, and the Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to the powerful market demands.[164]
Theoverseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in the region. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants fromsouthern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.[165] Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following theCommunist Revolution in 1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.[166] In 2022, Malaysian petroleum industry through its oil and gas company,Petronas, was ranked eighth in the world by the Brandirectory.[167] Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build theAsia-America Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US[168] This is to avoid disruption of the kind caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the2006 Hengchun earthquakes.
Proton Persona is one of the indigenously developed car model by Malaysian automobile manufacturerProton
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our planet."[169] Since the early 1990s, "even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism industries."[170] In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8%. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6% of GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7%. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15% of its GDP from tourism in 2006.[171] Furthermore, Vietnam is considered as a growingpower in Southeast Asia due to its large foreign investment opportunities and the booming tourism sector.
By the early 21st century,Indonesia had grown to anemerging market economy, becoming thelargest economy in the region. It was classified anewly industrialised country and is the region's singular member of theG-20 major economies.[172] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) for 2020 was US$1,088.8 billion (nominal) or $3,328.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US$4,038 (nominal) or $12,345 (PPP).[173] By GDP per capita in 2023, Singapore is the leading nation in the region with US$84,500 (nominal) or US$140,280 (PPP), followed by Brunei with US$41,713 (nominal) or US$79,408 (PPP) and Malaysia with US$13,942 (nominal) or US$33,353 (PPP).[174] Besides that, Malaysia has the lowest cost of living in the region, followed by Brunei and Vietnam.[175] On the contrary, Singapore is the costliest country in the region, followed by Thailand and the Philippines.[175]
Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the Asia-Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines'PSE leading the way with 22 per cent growth, followed by Thailand'sSET with 21 per cent and Indonesia'sJKSE with 19 per cent.[176][177]
Traditionally, the Southeast Asian economy has heavily relied on fossil fuels. However, it has begun transitioning towards clean energy. The region possesses significant renewable energy potential, including solar, wind, hydro, and pumped hydro energy storage. Modeling indicates that it could achieve a 97% share of solar and wind energy in the electricity mix at competitive costs ranging from $US 55 to $115 per megawatt-hour.[183]
The energy transition in Southeast Asia can be characterized as demanding, doable, and dependent.[184] This implies the presence of substantial challenges, including financial, technical, and institutional barriers. However, it is feasible, as evidenced by Vietnam's remarkable achievement of installing about 20 GW of solar and wind power in just three years.[185] International cooperation plays a crucial role in facilitating this transition.[184]
Population pyramid of South East Asia in 2023Population distribution of the countries of Southeast Asia (with Indonesia split into its major islands).
Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 square kilometres (1,700,000 sq mi). As of 2021, around 676 million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian island ofJava, the most densely populated large island in the world.Indonesia is the most populous country with 274 million people (~40% of South East Asia), and also the fourth most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 millionoverseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently inChristmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as theHoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.
The peoples of Southeast Asia are mainly divided into four major ethnolinguistic groups: theAustronesian, Austroasiatic (or Mon-Khmers),Tai (part of the widerKra-Dai family) and Tibeto-Burman (part of greaterSino-Tibetan language family) peoples. There is also a smaller but significant number ofHmong–Mien,Chinese,Dravidians,Indo-Aryans, Eurasians and Papuans, which also contributes to the diversity of peoples in the region.
TheAslians andNegritos were believed to be one of the earliest inhabitants in the region. They are genetically related toPapuans in Eastern Indonesia, Timor-Leste andAboriginal Australians. In modern times, theJavanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated inJava, Indonesia. The second-largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia are theVietnamese (Kinh people) with around 86 million people, mainly inhabiting Vietnam but also forming a significant minority in neighbouring Cambodia and Laos. TheThais are the third largest with around 59 million people, forming the majority in Thailand.
In Malaysia, the country is demographically divided intoMalays, who make up more than half of the country's population; theChinese, at around 22%; otherBumiputeras, at 12%; andIndians, at around 6%. InEast Malaysia, theDayaks (mainlyIbans andBidayuhs) make up the majority in the state ofSarawak, while theKadazan-Dusuns make up the majority inSabah. InLabuan, theBruneian Malays andKedayans are the largest groups. Overall, theMalays are the majority in Malaysia and Brunei and form a significant minority in Indonesia,Southern Thailand,Myanmar, andSingapore. In Singapore, the demographics of the country is similar to that of its West Malaysian counterparts but instead of Malays, it is theChinese that are the majority, while the Malays are the second largest group andIndians third largest.
In mainland Southeast Asia, theBurmese accounts for more than two-thirds of the population in Myanmar, but the country also has several regional ethnic groups which mainly live instates that are specifically formed for ethnic minorities. The major regional ethnic groups in Myanmar are the Tai-speakingShan people,Karen people,Rakhine people,Chin people,Kayah people and Indo-Aryan-speakingRohingya people living on the westernmost part of the country near the border withBangladesh. In neighbouring Thailand, the Thais are the largest ethnic group in the country but is divided into several regional Tai groups such as Central Thais,Northern Thais or Lanna,Southern Thais or Pak Thai, and Northeastern Thai orIsan people (which is ethnically more closely related toLao people than to Central Thais), each have their own unique dialects, history and culture. Besides the Thais, Thailand is also home to more than 70 ethnolinguistic groups of which the largest being Patani Malays,Northern Khmers, Karen,Hmongs andChinese.
Cambodia is one of the most homogeneous countries in the area, withKhmers forming more than 90% of the population but the country also has a large number of ethnicChams,Vietnamese and various inland tribes categorised under the termKhmer Loeu (Hill Khmers).
Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions and the region is home to many world religions including Abrahamic, Indian, East Asian and Iranian religions. By population,Islam is the most practised faith with approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40% of the entire population, concentrated inIndonesia,Brunei,Malaysia,Southern Thailand and in theSouthern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim-majority country in the world. Meanwhile, Islam is constitutionally the official religion in Malaysia and Brunei.[187][188] The majority of the Muslim population is Sunni, with very minority Shia population. A minority are Sufi or Ahmadiyya Muslims.[citation needed]
There are approximately 190–205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the second-largest religion in the region. Approximately 28 to 35% of the world's Buddhists reside in Southeast Asia.Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Singapore, and adherents may come from Theravada or Mahayana schools. Ancestor worship andConfucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore. Taoism and Chinese folk religions such as Mazuism are also widely practised by the overseas Chinese community in Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. In certain cases, they may include Chinese or local deities in their worshipping practises such as Tua Pek Kong, Datuk Keramat and many more.[full citation needed]
Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia, and Timor-Leste. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia.[189] Timor-Leste is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history ofIndonesian[190] and Portuguese rule. In October 2019, the number of Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, in Southeast Asia reached 156 million, of which 97 million came from thePhilippines, 29 million fromIndonesia, 11 million fromVietnam, and the rest fromMalaysia,Myanmar,Timor-Leste,Singapore,Laos,Cambodia andBrunei. In addition, Eastern Orthodox Christianity can also be found in the region. In addition, Judaism is practised in certain countries such as in the Philippines, Singapore and Indonesia due to the presence of Jewish diaspora. There is a small population of Parsis in Singapore who practiseZoroastrianism, andBaháʼí is also practised by very small population in Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore and Thailand.
No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. Some groups are protectedde facto by their isolation from the rest of the world.[191] In the world's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such asBali. Christianity also predominates in the rest of the part of the Philippines,New Guinea,Flores andTimor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia, etc.Garuda, thephoenix who is the mount (vahanam) ofVishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found onPalawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found onMindanao.Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, asanimism and local culture is incorporated into it. Meanwhile, Hindu community in Malaysia and Singapore are mostly South Indian diaspora, hence the practices are closely related to the Indian Hinduism. Additionally, Sikhism is also practised by significant population especially in Malaysia and Singapore by North Indian diaspora specifically from Punjab region. Small population of the Indian diaspora in the region are Jains and can be found in Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in Timor-Leste and the Philippines, Asia's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas ofSarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines, and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as aNat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but with a strong emphasis onancestor worship. Vietnamese folk religions are practised by majority of population in Vietnam. Caodaism, a monotheistic syncretic new religious movement, is also practised by less than one percent of the population in Vietnam. Due to the presence of Japanese diaspora in the region, the practice of Shinto has growingly made appearance in certain countries such as in Thailand.
The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken from theCIA World Factbook:[192]
Roman Catholicism (80.6%), Islam (6.9%-11%),[195] Evangelicals (2.7%),Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) (2.4%), Members Church of God International (1.0%), Other Protestants (2.8%), Buddhism (0.05%-2%),[196] Animism (0.2%-1.25%), others (1.9%)[197]
Each of the languages has been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and historical colonisation as well. There are nearly 800 native languages in the region.
The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages inbold):
Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago, making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the planet,[201] slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and other formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians speak in their local language(s). For more details,see:Languages of Indonesia.
The culture in Southeast Asia is diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian, Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenousAustronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. In addition, Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Vietnam and Singapore show more Chinese influence[210] in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was inChina's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is most prominently evident through the Tamil migrants,[211] which influenced, to some extent, thecuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct influence from India – only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples. Moreover, Vietnam is also categorised under theEast Asian cultural sphere along with China, Korea, and Japan due to a large amount of Chinese influence embedded in their culture and lifestyle.
Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for millennia, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate theBanaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in thePhilippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region.
Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This includes weaponry, such as the distinctivekris, and musical instruments, such as thegamelan.
The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination ofIslam,India, andChina. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian-influenced cultures, and the Chinese and Japanese trading era.
As a rule of thumb, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate withchopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. Thefish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.
Thearts of Southeast Asia have an affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular,Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early seventh century before theKhmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. TheApsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance.
Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a famous one being thewayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia are quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite large-scale conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu-influenced practices, culture, art, and literature. An example is thewayang kulit (shadow puppet) and literature like theRamayana. Thewayang kulit show has been recognised byUNESCO on 7 November 2003 as aMasterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind, the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. TheTai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer andMon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact withChinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in theirlacquerware.
Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. The main styles of traditional music include court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.
Of the court and folk genres,gong chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam).Gamelan andangklung orchestras fromIndonesia;piphat andpinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia; and thekulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines,Borneo,Sulawesi andTimor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments are also popular in the region.
On 18 November 2010, UNESCO officially recognised theangklung as aMasterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encouraged the Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship ofangklung making.
Thai manuscript from before the 19th-century writing system
The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region.
Some of the earliest writing systems of Southeast Asia stem from those ofIndia. This is shown throughBrahmic forms of writing present in the region, such as theBalinese script shown on split palm leaves calledlontar (see image to the left – magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side).
The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to beabugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.
In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi').
The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption ofchữ Hán in Vietnam dates back to around 111 BC when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script calledchữ Nôm used modified chữ Hán to express the Vietnamese language. Both chữ Hán and chữ Nôm were used up until the early 20th century.
Rapa Nui is an Austronesian language like those of Indonesian, Tagalog, and many other Southeast Asian languages.Rongorongo is presumed to be the script of Rapa Nui and if proven so, would place it as one of very fewinventions of writing in human history.[212]
Association football is the most popular sport in the region, with theASEAN Football Federation, the region's primary regulatory body, formed on 31 January 1984, inJakarta, Indonesia. TheAFF Championship is the largest football competition in the region since its inaugural in1996, withThailand holding the most titles in the competition with seven titles. The current reigning winner isVietnam, who defeated Thailand in the2024 final. Thailand has had the most numerous appearances in theAFC Asian Cup with 7 while the highest-ranked result in the Asian Cup for a Southeast Asian team is second place in the1968 byMyanmar inIran.Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian team to have played in the1938 FIFA World Cup as theDutch East Indies.
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