Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot – though it is sometimes served chilled – made by cooking or otherwise combining meat or vegetables withstock, milk, or water. According toThe Oxford Companion to Food,soup is the main generic term for liquid savoury dishes; others includebroth,bisque,consommé,potage and many more.
The consistency of soups varies from thin to thick: some soups are light and delicate; others are so substantial that they verge on beingstews. Although most soups are savoury, sweet soups are familiar in some parts of Europe.
Soups have been made since prehistoric times and have evolved over the centuries. The first soups were made from grains and herbs; later,legumes, other vegetables, meat or fish were added. Originally,sops referred to pieces of bread covered with savoury liquid; gradually the termsoup was transferred to the liquid itself. Soups are common to the cuisines of all continents and have been served at banquets as well as in peasant homes. Soups have been the primary source of nourishment for poor people in many places; in times of hardshipsoup-kitchens have provided sustenance for the hungry.
Some soups are found in recognisably similar forms in the cuisines of many countries and regions – chicken soups andoxtail soups are known round the world. Others remain almost entirely exclusive to their region of origin.
Name
The termsoup, or words like it, can be found in many languages. Similar terms include the Italianzuppa, the GermanSuppe, the Danishsuppe, the Russianсуп (pronounced "soup"), the Spanishsopa and the Polishzupa.[1] According toThe Oxford Companion to Food, "soup" is "the most general of the terms which apply to liquid savoury dishes";[1] other terms embraced bysoup includebroth,bisque,bouillon,consommé,potage and many more.[1][2]
According to thelexicographer John Ayto, "theetymological idea underlying the word soup is that of 'soaking'". In his 2012The Diner's Dictionary Ayto writes that the word dates back to an unrecorded post-classical Latin verbsuppare – "to soak", which was derived from the prehistoric Germanic root "sup–", which also produced the English "sup" and "supper". The term passed into Old French assoupe, meaning a piece of bread soaked in liquid" and, by extension, "broth poured on to bread".[3] The earliest recorded use in English of "sop" in the first sense dates from 1340.[2] The ancient conjunction of bread and soup still exists not only in thecroutons often served with soup, and the slice ofbaguette andGruyère floating on traditionalFrench onion soup, but also in bread-based soups including the GermanSchwarzbrotsuppe (black bread soup), the RussianOkroshka and the Italianpappa al pomodoro (tomato pulp).[4] TheDictionnaire de l'Académie française records the term "soupe" in French use from the twelfth century but adds that it is probably earlier.[5][n 1] TheOxford English Dictionary records the use of the word in English in the fourteenth century: "Soppen nim wyn & sucre & make me an stronge soupe".[2] The first known cookery book in English,The Forme of Cury,c. 1390, refers to several "broths", but not to soups.[6]
The Oxford Companion to Food (OCF) comments that soups can "stray, over what is necessarily an imprecisely demarcated frontier", into the realm of stews. The Companion adds that this tendency is noticeable among fish soups such asbouillabaisse.[1] The Hungariangoulash is regarded by many as a stew but by others, particularly in Hungary, as a soup (Gulyás).[7] The food writerHarold McGee contrasts soups with sauces inOn Food and Cooking, commenting that they can be so similar that soups may only be distinguished as less intensely flavoured, permitting them to be "eaten as a food in themselves, not an accent."[8]
History
Prehistory
Before the invention of boiling in water, cooking was limited to simple heating and roasting.[9] The making of soup or something akin has been dated by some writers back to theUpper Palaeolithic (between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago).[9] Some archaeologists conjecture that early humans employed hides and watertight baskets to boil liquids.[10] According to a study by the academic Garritt C. Van Dyk, the first soup may have been made byNeanderthals, boiling animal bones and drinking the broth.[10] Archaeological evidence for bone broths has been found in sites from Egypt to China.[10]
Ancient times and later
In 1988 the food writerM. F. K. Fisher commented, "It is impossible to think of any good meal, no matter how plain or elegant, without soup or bread in it. It is almost as hard to find any recorded menu, ancient or modern, without one or both".[11] Methods of making soup evolved from one culture to another. The first soups were made from grains and herbs; later, peas, beans, other vegetables, pasta, meat or fish were added.[12] In her 2010 workSoup: A Global History, Janet Clarkson writes that the ancient Romans had a great variety of soups.De re coquinaria (On the Subject of Cooking), a collection of Roman recipes compiled in the fourth or fifth century from earlier manuscripts gives details of numerous ingredients, mostly vegetable.[13]
In European and Arab cuisines soups continued to feature after the fall of the Roman Empire. Clarkson writes that the earliest known German cookery book, theBuch von guter Spise (Book of Good Food) published in about 1345, includes recipes for many soups, including one made with beer andcaraway seeds, another with leeks, almond milk and rice meal, others with carrots and almond milk or goose cooked in broth with garlic andsaffron. The early fifteenth-century French bookDu fait de cuisine (From the Kitchen) has many recipes for potages and "sops" including several regional variants.[14]
During the seventeenth century the soup itself, rather than the "sops" it contained, became seen as the most important element of the dish.[15] One of the most famous cookery books of its time wasRobert May'sThe Accomplisht Cook (1660). Clarkson comments that about a fifth of May's recipes are for soups of one kind or another.[16]
TheHuangdi Neijing, a Chinese medicinal text, describes the preparation of soups and clear liquids by steaming rice, and recommends soups as medicine.[17]
In the eighteenth century, meals at grand European tables were still served in the style that had persisted since the Middle Ages, with successive courses of three or four dishes placed on the table simultaneously and then replaced by three or more contrasting dishes.[18] Soup was typically part of the first course. Exceptionally, at particularly grand dinners, a first course might consist of four different soups, succeeded by four dishes of fish and then four of meat.[n 2] In the early nineteenth century a new style of dining became fashionable in Europe and elsewhere:service à la russe – Russian-style service: dishes were served one at a time, usually beginning with soup.[18]
Soup for the poor
Soup-kitchen in Dublin, 1847
In the OCFAlan Davidson writes that although soup is now typically served as the first of several courses in western menus, in many places around the world substantial soups have historically been an entire meal for poorer people, particularly in rural areas.[1] Many Russian peasants subsisted onrye bread and soup made from pickled cabbage.[20]
Charitablesoup-kitchens preparing soup and supplying it to the needy, either free or at a very low charge,[21] were known in the Middle East in the sixteenth century.[22] From the late eighteenth century, soup-kitchens (in GermanSuppenküche, in French,soupes populaires) were set up in Germany, France, England and elsewhere.[23] In the 1840s the chefAlexis Soyer established a soup-kitchen in theEast End of London to feedHuguenot silk weavers impoverished by cheap imports.[24] During theIrish famine, which began in 1845, he set up a kitchen in Dublin capable of feeding a thousand people an hour.[25]
In the United States soup-kitchens were set up in the 1870s. During theGreat Depression,Al Capone established and sponsored a soup-kitchen inChicago.[26] In the same period theSalvation Army ran similar operations elsewhere in the US and in Canada, Australia and Britain.[27]
In Asian countries soup became a familiar breakfast dish, but has not, according to Clarkson, done so in the west.[28][n 3] In China and Japan, soup came to have a different place in meals. As in the west, there was a distinction between thick and thin soups, but the latter would often be treated as a beverage, to be drunk from the bowl rather than eaten with a spoon.[30] In Japanmiso soup became the best known of the thick type, with many variations on the basic theme ofdashi, a stock made fromkombu (edible seaweed) and dried fermentedtuna, with miso (fermented soy bean) paste. Clarkson writes, "Miso soup is the traditional breakfast soup in the ordinary home, and the traditional end to a formal banquet".[30]Ramen, anoodle soup, popular in Japan and latterly internationally, is documented only from the second half of the nineteenth century.[31]
Indian cuisine includesrasam (sometimes called pepper-water), a thin, spicy soup, typically made with lentils, tomatoes, and seasonings includingtamarind, pepper, and chillies.[35] In Thai cuisinegaeng chud are soups: the most popular aretom yum kung made with prawns andtom khaa gai made fromgalangal, chicken and coconut milk.[36]Pho is a Vietnamese soup, usually made from beef stock and spices with noodles and thinly sliced beef or chicken added.[37] In Filipino cookerysinigang is a soup made with meat, shrimp, or fish and flavoured with a sour ingredient such as tamarind orguava;[38] also from the Philippines iscaldereta, a goat soup.[39] The soups of Indonesia includesoto ayam (chicken),sop udang (shrimp with rice vermicelli) andsop kepiting (crab).[40]Garudhiya is a soup served in the Maldives, with chunks of tuna in it.[41]
Two soups from Armenia are a cucumber andyoghurt soup calledjajik, andbozbash, containing lamb and fruit;[42]dyushbara is a dumpling soup from Azerbaijan;[43] Tibetan cooking includestsamsuk, made from grains, butter, soya and cheese.[44] An Iranian summer soup,mast-o khiar, is made with yoghurt, cucumber, and mint.[45] Turkishkelle-paça is made from the meat from animal heads and feet.[46]Tarhana, one of the oldest traditional Turkish soups, is made by mixing and fermenting yoghurt, cereal flours and a variety of cooked vegetables, producing a soup with a sour and acidic tang and a yeasty flavour.[47] Also from Turkey isYayla çorbasi, a yoghurt soup with rice or barley. Like chicken soup it has curative properties ascribed to it by some.[48]
Europe
From the sixteenth century onwards, Paris was known for its street vendors selling soup,[n 4] and in mid-nineteenth-century Paris,Les Halles, the large central food market, became known for its stalls sellingonion soup with a substantial topping of grated cheese, put under a grill and servedau gratin.[50][51] Thisgratinée des Halles transcended class distinctions, becoming the breakfast of theforts des Halles – the workers responsible for transporting the goods – and a restorative for the party people leaving the cabarets of Paris late at night.[52]
The many cuisines of Europe have a wide range of soups. Among the soups of Italy areminestrone,zuppa pavese andstraciatella, respectively a vegetable broth,consommé with poached eggs, and a meat broth with eggs and cheese.[53] From Belgium there arepotage liégeois – a pea and bean soup – andsoupe tchantches, a vegetable soup with finevermicelli and milk.[54] Bulgarian cuisine includestarator, a cold yoghurt and cucumber soup.[55] Dutch soups includeerwtensoep – a split pea soup – andbruinebonensoep, a brown bean soup eaten with rye bread and bacon.[56] A soup from the Faeroe Islands israskjøt, made with dried mutton.[57]Erbensuppe mit Schweinsohren, is a German split pea soup with pig's ear.[58]Zivju supa, a Latvian fish soup incorporates whole pieces of cooked fish with potato;[59] The Finnishkesäkeitto is a light summer soup of seasonal vegetables cooked in milk and water;[60] the Swedishköttsoppa is a meat and vegetable soup;[61] the Norwegianblomkålspuré is cauliflower soup with egg yolks and cream.[60]Gehäck, from Luxembourg, is made with pork offal, and finished with prunes soaked in local white wine.[62]
Maltese soups includesoppa tal-armla ("widow's soup"), made with green and white vegetables and garnished with a poached egg and cheese, andaljotta a light fish soup flavoured with garlic and marjoram.[63] Two soups from Poland arechlodnik, a crayfish and beetroot soup, served chilled[64] andgrochowka, yellow-pea soup with barley.[65] Portuguese soups includecanja (chicken) andcaldo verde (potato and cabbage).[66]Cullen skink (smokedhaddock soup)[67] and nettle soup[68] are of Scottish origin. A Welsh soup,cawl, is typically made with lamb or beef together with vegetables including potatoes, swedes and carrots.[69] Slovenian cuisine includesjuha, a meat and vegetable soup.[70] Russian soups includeschi (cabbage soup),solyanka (vegetable soup with meat or fish),rassolnik (pickled cucumber soup), andukha (fish soup).[71]
Arabshorba typically contains meat and oats;[72] Egyptian food includesmelokhia, a soup ofjute leaves and meat.[73] The Moroccanharira contains chickpeas, meat and rice.[74] In Nigeria, according to Davidson, "soupy stews or stewlike soups" are popular. He gives as examplesegusi soup, often made with offal, palm oil,carob,lemon basil, andegusi powder, and variousokra soups. He adds that in Nigeria soup made from goat is "so important that it is usually served at the most important functions".[75] InA Safari of African Cooking (1971) Bill Odarty also highlights goat soup from Liberia.[76] Other Nigerian soups include the spinach-based soup Efo.[77] A study in 2025 reported that despite their nutritional richness and cultural importance, traditional soups were declining in popularity, particularly among younger generations and in urban areas.[78]
Soups from other parts of Africa include Cheruba – a lamb and vegetable soup withlima beans orchickpeas – from north Africa;[79] a West African speciality isgroundnut soup.[80]Abenkwan, from West Africa, is a soup of crab meat, pulped palm nuts and lamb.[81][82] East African cuisine includes bean soup with tomato, onion, pepper and curry powder.[83] Supuya papai, from Tanzania, is a cream soup containingpapaya and onion.[84] A Congolese green papaya soup is made with bacon fat, chicken broth, milk and red pepper.[85] South African soups include curriedsnoek head soup.[86] A 2014 study records a Ghanaian saying, "I haven’t eaten if I don't have my soup andfufu" (a dough of poundedcocoyam orcassava).[87] The soup is typically based onokra.[88]
Soups from the Americas include aspiny lobster soup from Belize,[89]Cajuncrayfish bisque,[90] andgumbo, a hearty soup (or stew) traditionally made from meat or shellfish with tomatoes, vegetables, herbs, and spices, thickened withokra.[91] In the Caribbean and Latin Americasancocho is a thick soup typically consisting of meat,tubers, and other vegetables.[92]Callalloo soups are found in the West Indies and Brazil.[93]
A Brazilian favourite isMoqueca de camarão, a broth of tomato and coconut with shrimps: one food writer comments "locals eat steaming bowls on even the hottest days".[48]Ajiaco Santaferenio is a Colombianavocado soup),[94] and Mexico has a black bean soup.[95]Chupe de camarones, a Peruvian soup, is a chowder of shrimp and chilli pepper and is reputedly an aphrodisiac.[48] Honduras, the US and Mexico all have atripe soup, respectivelymondongo,pepper pot soup, andmenudo.[48][96] The Mexicansopa de alb digas is a meatball soup.[97]
Soups from the US include theclam chowder ofNew England, which has entered the international culinary repertoire,[98] an American regional favourite,Maryland crab soup,[99] and cream ofcorn soup, which became popular inCalifornia during the 1980s.[100]
Australasian soups include two from New Zealand:toheroa (clam) andkumara (sweet potato and chilli).[101] Davidson remarks favourably on the Australianwallabi-tail soup.[102]
Classification
In the western cuisine of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries there have been and are numerous soups.Auguste Escoffier divided them into two main types:
Clear soups, which include plain and garnished consommés
Thick soups, which comprise the purées, veloutés, and creams
He added, "A third class, which is independent of either of the above, in that it forms part of plain, household cookery, embraces vegetable soups andgarbures orgratinéd soups. But in important dinners – by this I mean rich dinners – only the first two classes are recognised".[103]
Louis Saulnier'sLe Répertoire de la cuisine, first published in 1914, contains six pages of details ofpotages (clear soups), two pages onsoupes (moistened with water, milk or thin white stock), eight pages onveloutés (soups thickened with egg yolks) andcrèmes (thickened with double cream),[104] as well as a further three pages on fifty-three"Potages étrangers" – foreign soups – includingborscht from theRussian Empire, clam chowder from the United States,cock-a-leekie from Scotland,minestrone from Italy,mock turtle from England, andmulligatawny fromBritish India.[105]
The French distinction between clear and thick soups is echoed in other languages: in GermanKlare Suppen andGebundene Suppen; in ItalianBrodi andZuppe; and in SpanishSopas claras andSopas spessas.[106] Many soups are fundamentally the same in the cuisines of various countries, with minor local variations.Oxtail soup, a familiar item in British and American cooking, is one of several oxtail soups from round the world, including one fromSichuan, others from Austria (Ochsenschleppsuppe), Jamaica, South Africa and France (potage bergére – oxtail consommé thickened withtapioca, garnished withasparagus and diced mushrooms).[107] Chicken soups have been common to numerous cuisines since ancient times: they featured in east Asian cooking more than 5,000 years ago,[108] and were considered therapeutic inpharaonic Egypt, theRoman empire,Persia andbiblical Israel.[109][n 5] Modern variants are found from Japan (tori no suimono)[111] to Portugal (canja),[112] Colombia (ajiaco)[113] and France (consommé de volaille).[114]
a good home-made soup in these days of the tin opener is almost a unique and always a satisfying experience. Most soups are uncomplicated to make, and the major portion of them can be prepared several hours before serving.[116]
Cold soups are a particular variation on the traditional soup. Two well-known chilled soups are the Franco-Americanvichyssoise and the Spanishgazpacho.The Oxford English Dictionary defines the former as "A soup made with potatoes, leeks, and cream, usually served chilled", and the latter as "A cold Spanish vegetable soup consisting of onions, cucumbers, pimentos, etc., chopped very small with bread and put into a bowl of oil, vinegar, and water".[117]
Sweet soups
Many ancient cuisines developed versions of fruit soup: either fruits were added to a grain-based pottage or the soup consisted mostly of fruit flavoured with various spices.[12] The soups were made from whatever fruit was ready for harvest locally or from dried fruit.[12] Fruit soups remain well known in Germany and Nordic countries: although they may sometimes be served at the beginning of a meal they are sweet dishes. Davidson instancesrødgrød, also known asrote Grütze, a red berry soup popular in Denmark, other parts of Scandinavia and Germany,sitruunakeitto, a creamy lemon soup from Finland, and the Middle Easternkhoshab, made with dried fruits.[118] Other fruits used to make sweet soups include apples, blueberries, cherries, gooseberries, rhubarb and rose-hips.[118]
Sour soups
Davidson mentions a category, "sour soups", important in northern, eastern and central Europe. Some have a fermented beer base or useSauerkraut, others are soured with vinegar, pickled beetroot, lemon or yoghurt. Examples includesinisang (above),chorba, a meat and vegetable soup found in many countries of eastern Europe, north Africa and Asia,[119] andsop ikan pedas, a fish soup from Indonesia.[120]Żurek, from Poland, is a sour bread soup based not on meat or vegetable stock but on fermented cereal such asrye. According to a Polish cookery book, "it is always sour, salty, and creamy at the same time".[121]
Food preservation has, in Clarkson's phrase, "always been a preoccupation of the human animal",[122] allowing food to be kept for long periods. In herDomestic Cookery (1806),Maria Rundell gave a recipe for "Portable Soup – a very useful thing"[123] – highly concentrated meat stock that set to a solid consistency: for a bowl of soup it was only necessary to dissolve some in hot water.[124] By the beginning of the nineteenth century theRoyal Navy had been victualling its ships with portable soup for some years.[125] Recipes were published under many names; Clarkson lists "veal glew", "cake soup", "cake gravey", "broth cakes", "solid soop", "portmanteau pottage", "pocket soup", "carry soup and "soop always in readiness".[126]
In 1810Peter Durand, an English inventor, was granted apatent for the firsttin can for soup. The first commercial canning factory opened in England in 1813; it had a capacity of only six cans an hour; each can was cut by hand, filled and the lid soldered on individually.[127] With advances in technology the canning of food had expanded by the end of the century and companies such asHeinz were promoting their soups as gourmet products indistinguishable from home-made versions.[128] Canning made soup readily available, easily transportable, long-lasting and convenient.[129] In 1897 Heinz's rivalCampbell's introduced condensed canned soups, to be diluted with water to produce double the volume.[n 6] According to the food historianReay Tannahill,tomato soup was not popular in the US or Britain until Campbell's began marketing it.[131]
Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food, and in the nineteenth century Soyer praised commercially dried vegetables as a good ingredient of soldiers' soup during theCrimean War.[132] Dried soups remained in military use into the 1950s, but it was not until the mid-twentieth century that manufacturers began extensively marketing them for domestic use.The Good Nutrition Guide (2008) commented, "Although many types of processed soup have been criticised for their salt levels, packet soups are by far the worst".[133] Subsequently, some manufacturers have experimented with reduced-salt packet soups. A trial in France in 2012 found that reducing salt in chicken noodle soup by more than thirty per cent did not affect consumers' liking for the product.[134]
Soups and sops are frequently encountered in literature. In theKing James Bible, Jesus identifies his forthcoming betrayer: "'He it is, to whom I shall give a sop, when I have dipped it'. And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it toJudas."[n 7]Stone Soup, an old folk tale, tells of soup produced by travellers who have no food and promise to feed the inhabitants of a village who contribute what they have to a cauldron which at first contains only a stone but is quickly added to by the villagers, making a tasty soup for everyone.[136]
The figurative use of "milksop" – literally bread dipped in milk – to mean a feeble, timid or ineffectual person is found inChaucer'sThe Canterbury Tales andShakespeare'sRichard III.[137] InJane Austen'sPride and Prejudice, Mr Bingley is kept waiting to announce his forthcoming ball until his cook has made enough white soup, a soup containing veal stock and almonds, much favoured for dances at the time.[138] One ofLewis Carroll's best-known characters, theMock Turtle, who owes his name tothe eponymous soup,[139] sings a song that begins "Beautiful Soup, so rich and green/ Waiting in a hot tureen!"[140] InIsak Dinesen's 1958 story"Babette's Feast", turtle soup is the first course of a magnificent dinner.[141]
^In all its editions from the first (1694) to the eighth (1935) theDictionnaire de l'Académie française stipulated that soup is served with bread: "a kind of food made of broth and slices of bread" (1694) and "liquid food in which bread is usually soaked" (1935) – sorte d’aliment fait de boüillon & de tranches de pain andaliment liquide dans lequel trempe ordinairement du pain.[5] The current edition distinguishes between the old and the modern meanings of the word: (i) a slice of bread that was drizzled with broth or another liquid (ii) a liquid dish, more or less substantial, which is most often served hot and at the beginning of the meal ((i) une tranche de pain qui a été arrosée de bouillon ou d’un autre aliment liquid; (ii) un plat liquide, plus ou moins conséquent, qui est le plus souvent servi chaud et en début de repas).[5]
^For a dinner given by thePrince Regent in 1817,Antonin Carême served a first course ofPotage à la Monglas, Garbure aux choux, Potage d'orge perlée à la Crécy andPotage de poisons à la russe (respectively, a brown cream soup with foie gras and truffles, rustic vegetable broth with cabbage, a delicate purée ofpearl barley and carrots, and Russian style fish soup).[19]
^Nevertheless, the creator ofvichyssoise,Louis Diat recalled in his memoirs, published in 1961: "Casting about one day for a new cold soup, I remembered howmaman used to cool our breakfast soup, on a warm morning, by adding cold milk to it. A cup of cream, an extra straining, and a sprinkle of chives,et voila, I had my new soup. I named my version ofmaman's soup after Vichy, the famous spa located not twenty miles from our Bourbonnais home, as a tribute to the fine cooking of the region".[29]
^Soup was marketed as a "restorative" – aliment qui restaure. In 1765, according toProsper Montagné'sLarousse Gastronomique, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specialising in soups, sold as "magical restoratives". This prompted the use of the modern wordrestaurant to refer to eating establishments.[49]
^Chicken soup has acquired the nickname "Jewishpenicillin" from its frequent use as food for invalids.[110]
^To sell condensed soup at low prices, Campbell's management drove down costs by automating production as much as possible and applying anti-union policies against the workforce.[130]
^In theNew English Bible, this is given as "'It is the man to whom I give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish'. Then, after dipping it in the dish, he took it out and gave it to Judas".[135]
^"Duck soup" was an American slang expression meaning an easy task (possibly alluding to "a sitting duck" as an easy target).[144]
^Chicken soup with barley, a traditional Jewish dish, is served in the first act of Wesker's play in a family kitchen in theEast End of London.[148]
^Schetterer, June. "Salvation Army – 80 Years of Service in New Rochelle",The Standard-Star, 8 May 1969, p. 4; and "Soup Kitchen is Opened for Needy in City",Shawnee News-Star, 20 December 1931, p. 15; "Salvation Army Feeding Many Hungry Hoboes",The Cornwall Freeholder, 31 January 1931, p. 1; "The Tragedy of Unemployment",The Williamstown Advertiser, 15 June 1929, p. 4; and "Soup Kitchen Opens",Cheltenham Chronicle, 10 Nov 1934, p. 5
^Tarakçı, Zekai, Ismail S. Dogan, and A. Faik Koca."A Traditional Fermented Turkish Soup",International Journal of Food Science & Technology, Vol. 39, No 4, April 2004, p. 455
^Oluwadunsin, Olugbuyi, Ajibola Mitchell Oyinloye, Toyin Olanike Adaramoye, Adefisola Bola Adepeju and Kemisola Joy Ojo (2025)."Introduction" "Analysis of nutritional properties, sensory attributes and perceived consumption frequency of some selected Nigeria indigenous soup",Discover Food, Vol. 5, June 2025
^Stanger, Howard R. "Condensed Capitalism: Campbell Soup and the Pursuit of Cheap Production in the Twentieth Century".Business History Review 85.2 (2011), p. 419
^Willems, Astrid A.et al. "Effects of Salt Labelling and Repeated In-Home Consumption on Long-Term Liking of Reduced-Salt Soups",Public Health Nutrition 17.5 (2014), p. 1130
Bickel, Walter (1989).Hering's Dictionary of Classical and Modern Cookery (eleventh ed.). London: Virtue.ISBN978-3-8057-0307-9.
Blum-Reid, Sylvie (2010). "Cooking With Julia (Child) in France". In C. A. Mahar (ed.).Cuisine and Symbolic Capital: Food in Film and Literature. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.ISBN978-1-44-382255-8.
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