TheEast CushiticSomali language is the shared mother tongue of ethnic Somalis, which is part of theCushitic branch of theAfroasiatic language family. They are predominantlySunni Muslim.[42][43] Forming one of the largest ethnic groups on the continent, they cover one of the most expansive landmasses by a single ethnic group inAfrica.[44]
According to most scholars, the ancientLand of Punt and its native inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people. This ancient historical kingdom is where a great portion of their cultural traditions and ancestry are said to derive from.[45][46][47][48] Somalis and their country have long been identified with the termBarbar (orAl-Barbar)—12th-century geographeral-Idrisi, for example, identified the Somali Peninsula asBarbara,[49] and classical sources from the Greeks and Romans similarly refer to the region as the secondBarbaria.[50]
Samaale, the legendary common ancestor of severalSomali clans, is generally regarded as the source of theethnonymSomali. One other theory is that the name is held to be derived from the wordssoo andmaal, which together mean "go and milk". This interpretation differs depending on region, with northern Somalis implying it refers to camel's milk,[55] while southern Somalis use the transliterationsa' maal which refers to cow's milk.[56] This is a reference to the ubiquitouspastoralism of the Somali people.[57]
Another plausibleetymology proposes that the termSomali is derived from theArabic word forwealthy (zāwamāl), referring to Somali riches in livestock.[58][59] Historian Mohamed A. Rirash maintains that the etymology of the ethnonym derives from the compound termsoofmaal—withsoof meaning 'to herd' andmaal referring to 'livestock'—initially serving as an occupational label for Somali pastoralists before evolving into the collective name for all ethnic Somalis.[60]
Alternatively, the ethnonym is believed to have been derived from the Automoli (Asmach), a group of warriors fromancient Egypt described byHerodotus.Asmach is thought to have been theirEgyptian name, withAutomoli being aGreek derivative of theHebrew wordS'mali (meaning 'on the left hand side').[61]
ATang Chinese document from the 9th century CE referred to the northern Somalia coast—which was then part of a broader region inNortheast Africa known asBarbaria, in reference to the area's Barbar (Cushitic) inhabitants[62]—asPo-pa-li.[63][64]
The first clear written reference of thesobriquetSomali dates back to the early 15th century CE during the reign of Ethiopian EmperorYeshaq I who had one of his court officials compose ahymn celebrating a military victory over theSultanate of Ifat.[65]Simur was also an ancientHarari alias for the Somali people.[66]
Somalis overwhelmingly prefer thedemonymSomali over the incorrectSomalian since the former is anendonym, while the latter is anexonym with double suffixes.[67] Thehypernym of the termSomali from a geopolitical sense isHorner and from an ethnic sense, it isCushite.[68]
The origin of the Somali people which was previously theorized to have been from SouthernEthiopia since 1000 BC or from theArabian Peninsula in the eleventh century has now been overturned by newer archeological and linguistic studies which puts the original homeland of the Somali people inSomaliland region, which concludes that the Somalis are the indigenous inhabitants of theHorn of Africa for the last 7000 years.[69]
Ancientrock paintings, which date back 5000 years (estimated), have been found inSomaliland region. These engravings depict early life in the territory.[70] The most famous of these is theLaas Geel complex. It contains some of the earliest knownrock art on theAfrican continent and features many elaborate pastoralist sketches of animal and human figures. In other places, such as theDhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman.[70]
Inscriptions have been found beneath many of the rock paintings, butarchaeologists have so far been unable to decipher this form of ancient writing.[71] During theStone Age, theDoian andHargeisan cultures flourished here with their respectiveindustries and factories.[72]
The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes fromcemeteries in Somalia dating back to4th millennium BC.[73] Thestone implements from theJalelosite in Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality inpalaeolithic times between theEast and theWest.[74]
Inantiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers offrankincense,myrrh andspices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by theAncient Egyptians,Phoenicians,Mycenaeans andBabylonians.[75][76]
Queen Ati of Land of Punt as depicted on the walls ofDeir el-Bahari
Inclassical antiquity, theMacrobians, who may have been ancestral to the Automoli or ancient Somalis, established a powerful tribal kingdom that ruled large parts of modernSomalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".[78] The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, theAchaemenid emperorCambyses II, uponhis conquest of Egypt in 525 BCE, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.[78][79] The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture andgold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains.[79]
Islam was introduced to the area early on by the first Muslims ofMecca fleeing prosecution during the firstHejira withMasjid al-Qiblatayn being built before theQiblah faced towardsMecca. The town ofZeila's two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is one of the oldestmosques in Africa.[81]
Consequently, the Somalis were some of the earliest non-Arabs that converted to Islam.[82] The peaceful conversion of the Somali population bySomali Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into IslamicMogadishu,Berbera,Zeila,Barawa,Hafun andMerca, which were part of the Berberi civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as theCity of Islam,[83] and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.[84]
TheSultanate of Ifat, led by theWalashma dynasty with its capital atZeila, ruled over parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland. The historianal-Umari records that Ifat was situated near theRed Sea coast, and states its size as 15 days travel by 20 days travel. Its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven "mother cities": Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi,Shewa, Adal, Jamme and Laboo.[85]
Berbera was the most important port in theHorn of Africa between the 18th–19th centuries.[91] For centuries,Berbera had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in theArabian Peninsula. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent onBerbera for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day.Berbera was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such aslivestock,coffee,frankincense,myrrh,acacia gum,saffron,feathers,ghee,hide (skin),gold andivory.[92] Historically, the port ofBerbera was controlled indigenously between themercantile Reer Ahmed Nur and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of theHabar Awal.[93]
Illustration of Berbera, 1884
According to a trade journal published in 1856,Berbera was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf.":
"The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla [Zeila] and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market."[94]
As a tributary ofMocha, which in turn was part of the Ottoman possessions in Western Arabia, the port ofZeila had seen several men placed as governors over the years. The Ottomans based in Yemen held nominal authority of Zeila whenSharmarke Ali Saleh, who was a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, purchased the rights of the town from the Ottoman governor of Mocha and Hodeida.[95]
Allee Shurmalkee [Ali Sharmarke] has since my visit either seized or purchased this town, and hoisted independent colours upon its walls; but as I know little or nothing save the mere fact of its possession by that Soumaulee chief, and as this change occurred whilst I was in Abyssinia, I shall not say anything more upon the subject.[96]
However, the previous governor was not eager to relinquish his control of Zeila. Hence in 1841, Sharmarke chartered two dhows (ships) along with fifty SomaliMatchlock men and twocannons to targetZeila and depose its Arab Governor, Syed Mohammed Al Barr. Sharmarke initially directed his cannons at the city walls which frightened Al Barr's followers and caused them to abandon their posts and succeeded Al Barr as the ruler of Zeila. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible, with his sights set as far asHarar and theOgaden.[97][98]
In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring Berbera from that town's then feuding Somali local authorities.[99][100][101] Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the Somali coast as he had allies and influence in the interior of the Somali country, the Danakil coast and even further afield in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Kings of Shewa. When there was tension between the Amir of HararAbu Bakr II ibn `Abd al-Munan and Sharmarke, as a result of the Amir arresting one of his agents inHarar, Sharmarke persuaded the son ofSahle Selassie, ruler ofShewa, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years.[102]
Dervish commanderHaji Sudi on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.
In the late 19th century, after theBerlin Conference had ended, theScramble for Africa reached the Horn of Africa. Increasing foreign influence in the region culminated in the creation of the firstDarawiish, an armed resistance movement calling for the independence from European powers.[103][104] TheDervish had their leaders,Mohammed Abdullah Hassan,Haji Sudi andSultan Nur Ahmed Aman, who sought a state in the Nugaal[105] and began one of the longest African conflicts in modern history.[106][107]
The news of the incident that sparked the 21 year longDervish rebellion, according to the consul-generalJames Hayes Sadler, was spread or as he claimed was concocted by Sultan Nur of theHabr Yunis. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children who were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French Catholic Mission atBerbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion of the Dervishes.[108]
TheDervish movement successfully stymiedBritish forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region.[109] As a result of its successes against the British, the Dervish movement received support from theOttomans andGermans. TheOttoman government also named HassanEmir of the Somali nation,[110] and theGerman government promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.[111]
After a quarter of a century of military successes against the British, the Dervishes were finally defeated by Britain in 1920 in part due to the successful deployment of the newly-formedRoyal Air Force by theBritish government.[112]
Majeerteen Sultanate was founded in the early-1700s and rose to prominence in the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King)Osman Mahamuud.[113] His Kingdom controlled Bari Karkaar, Nugaaal, and also central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Majeerteen Sultanate maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.[114][115]
The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly dismantled in the late-1800s by a power struggle between BoqorOsman Mahamuud and his ambitious cousin,Yusuf Ali Kenadid who founded theSultanate of Hobyo in 1878. Initially Kenadid wanted to seize control of the neighbouring Sultanate. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile inYemen.[116] Both sultanates maintained written records of their activities, which still exist.[117]
In 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid entered into a treaty with the Italian government, making his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italianprotectorate. His rival Boqor Osman Mahamuud was to sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate the following year. In signing the agreements, both rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories.[118]
The Italians, for their part, were interested in the territories mainly because of itsports specifically Port ofBosaso which could grant them access to the strategically importantSuez Canal and theGulf of Aden.[119] The terms of the treaties the rulers signed specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the Sultanates' respective administrations.[118] In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions.[120] The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the Sultanates' and their own interests.[118]
The new protectorates were thereafter managed byVincenzo Filonardi through achartered company.[120] An Anglo-Italian border protocol was later signed on 5 May 1894, followed by an agreement in 1906 between Cavalier Pestalozza and General Swaine acknowledging thatBaran fell under the Majeerteen Sultanate's administration.[118] With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of Italian colonial rule, both Kingdoms were eventually annexed in the early 20th century.[121] However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.[122] By the end of 1927, following a two-year military campaign,Rome finally asserted full authority over the entirety of Italian Somalia.[123] In 1936, the region was integrated intoItalian East Africa as theSomalia Governorate.[124]
In urban areas, the colony was one of the most developed on the continent in terms of standard of living.[125] In the late 1930s the triangle area between Mogadishu,Merca andVillabruzzi was fully developed in agriculture with a growing export of bananas toWestern Europe.[126][127] During this period, the Mogadishu area was transformed into a colonial capital through the imposition of a new European-style city upon the old historic centre.[128] The British conquest of Italian Somalia in 1941 however removed parts of the infrastructure theItalians had built, such as theMogadishu–Villabruzzi Railway.[129]
FollowingWorld War II, Britain retained control of bothBritish Somaliland andItalian Somalia asprotectorates. In 1945, during thePotsdam Conference, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somalia, but only under close supervision and on the condition — first proposed by theSomali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL) — that Somalia achieve independence within ten years.[130][131] British Somalia remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960.[132]
To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the newSomali Republic state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts.[133]
Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from theirWorld War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,[134] the British ceded official control of theHaud (an important Somali grazing area that was brought under British protection via treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and theOgaden to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian EmperorMenelik in exchange for his help against raids by Somali clans.[135] Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.[130] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to purchase back the Somali lands it had turned over.[130] The British government also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited[136]Northern Frontier District (NFD) to theKenyan government despite an informalplebiscite demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.[137]
Mahmoud Harbi, a Somali politician who campaigned forFrench Somalia to join a united Somali state.
Areferendum was held in neighboringDjibouti (then known asFrench Somaliland) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizableAfar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[138] There was also widespreadvote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls.[139] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed byMahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[138] Djibouti finally gained its independence fromFrance in 1977, andHassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991).[138]
On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town ofLas Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a militarycoup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which theSomali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major GeneralMohamed Siad Barre, who at the time commanded the army.[144]
The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and ruralliteracy campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with theArab world, eventually joining theArab League (AL) in 1974.[148] That same year, Barre also served as chairman of theOrganization of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of theAfrican Union (AU).[149]
Somali clans are patrilineal kinship groups based on agnatic descent of the Somali people.[150][151][152] Tradition and folklore connects the origin of the Somali population by language and way of life, and societal organisations, by customs, and by a feeling of belonging to a broader family among individuals from theArabian Peninsula.[153]
The Somali people are mainly divided among five patrilineal clans, theHawiye,Darod,Isaaq,Rahanweyn andDir.[154] The average person is able to trace his/her ancestry generations back. Somali clans in contemporary times have an established official structure in the country's political system, acknowledged by a mathematical formula for equitably distributing seats between the clans in theFederal Parliament of Somalia.[155][156][157] Minor Somali clans includeAsharaf.[158]
The clan represents the highest degree of familial affiliation. It holds territorial properties and is typically overseen by a Sultan. Clans possess ancestral lands, which are associated with the migratory patterns of the Somali people throughout their historical narrative. Each clan is administered by its designated leader and supported by its council of elders, with land being communally owned and overseen.[159] Various Somali clans utilisedistinct titles for their leaders, includingSultan,[160]Emir,Imam,[161]Ughaz,[160] andGaraad.[162] Clan leadership may behereditary, or leaders may beelected by the council of elders composed of representatives from diverse clan lineages. The leaders of these clans fulfill both religious and political responsibilities.[159]
The traditions of descent from noble elite forefathers who settled on the littoral are debated, although they are based on early Arab documents and Somali folklore.[171][172][173] Thetombs of the founders ofDarod,Dir,Isaaq as well as theAbgaal subclan ofHawiye are all located in northern Somalia. Tradition holds this area as the ancestral homeland of the Somali people.[158]
With very few exceptions, Somalis are entirely Muslims, the majority belonging to theSunni branch of Islam and theShafi'i school ofIslamic jurisprudence.[174][175] There are two theories about when Somalis began adopting Islam.[176] One states that the religion entered the region very early on, as a group of persecuted Muslims had, at ProphetMuhummad's urging, sought refuge across theRed Sea in theHorn of Africa. Islam may thus have been introduced into Somalia well before the faith even took root in its place of origin.[176] An alternate theory states that Islam was brought to the coastal settlements of Somalia between the 7th and the 10th century by seafaring Arab and Persian merchants.[177][176]
At present, scholarly dates for the Islamicization of the country are uncertain and may be as late as the eleventh and twelfth centuries, though others suggest a possibly earlier date.[178][179] Islam entered the region very early on, shortly after thehijra. The two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldestmosque in the country. In the late 9th century,Al-Yaqubi wrote thatMuslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard.[180]
Theconstitution of Somalia defines Islam as the state religion of the Federal Republic of Somalia, and Islamicsharia law as the basic source for national legislation. It also stipulates that no law that is inconsistent with the basic tenets of Shari'a can be enacted.[181]There are some Somalis who genuinely believe with great pride that they are of Arabian ancestry, and trace their stirp to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's lineage ofQuraysh and those of his companions. Although they do not consider themselves culturally Arabs, except for the shared religion, their presumed noble Arabian origins genealogically unite them.[182] The purpose behind claiming genealogical traditions of descent from theArabian Peninsula is used to reinforce one's lineage and the various associated patriarchs with the spread of Islam.[183]
Old Somali stone tablet: AfterSomali had lost its ancient writing script,[188]Somali scholars over the following centuries developed a writing system known asWadaad writing to transcribe the language.
TheSomali language (Af-Soomaali) is a member of theCushitic branch of theAfroasiatic family. Its nearest relatives are theAfar andSaho languages.[189] Somali is the best documented of the Cushitic languages[190] with academic studies dating from the 19th century.[191]
The exact number of speakers of Somali is unknown. One source estimates that there are 16.3 million speakers of Somali within Somalia and 25.8 million speakers globally.[192][193] Recent estimates had approximately 24 million speakers of Somali, spread inGreater Somalia of which around 17 million resided in Somalia.[194] The Somali language is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Greater Somalia and the Somali diaspora.[195]
Somali dialects are divided into three main groups:Northern,Benadiri, andMaay. Northern Somali (or Northern-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali. Benadiri (also known as Coastal Somali) is spoken on theBenadir coast fromAdale to south ofMerca, including Mogadishu, as well as in the immediate hinterland. The coastal dialects have additionalphonemes which do not exist in Standard Somali. Maay is principally spoken by the Digil and Mirifle (Rahanweyn) clans in the southwestern areas of Somalia.[196]
A number ofwriting systems have been used over the years for transcribing the Somali language. Of these, theSomali Latin alphabet is the most widely used, and has been the official writing script in Somalia since the government of formerPresident of Somalia Mohamed Siad Barre formally introduced it in October 1972.[197] The script was developed by the Somali linguistShire Jama Ahmed specifically for the Somali language. It uses all letters of theLatin alphabet, exceptp,v, andz. Besides the Latin script, other orthographies that have been used for centuries for writing Somali include the long-establishedArabic script andWadaad writing. Other writing systems developed in the twentieth century including theOsmanya,Borama andKaddare scripts, which were invented byOsman Yusuf Kenadid,Abdurahman Sheikh Nuur andHussein Sheikh Ahmed Kaddare respectively.[198]
In addition to Somali,Arabic, which is also an Afro-Asiatic tongue, is an official national language in Somalia and Djibouti. Many Somalis speak it due to millennia-old ties with theArab world, the far-reaching influence of the Arabic media, and religious education.[199] Somalia and Djibouti are also both members of theArab League.[41][200]
Somali culture is a diverse tradition, an amalgamation of traditions developed independently and through interaction with neighboring and far away civilizations, such as other parts ofNortheast Africa, theArabian Peninsula,India andSoutheast Asia,[201] shaped by centuries of nomadic life, Islamic scholarship, and maritime trade. It encompasses a strong oral heritage, particularly in poetry, which plays a central role in social and political life. Islam is deeply integrated into Somali customs, law, and daily practice. Somali society is traditionally clan-based, with a strong emphasis on hospitality, kinship, and communal responsibility.[202] Artistic expression appears in various forms including music, dance, visual arts, and decorative crafts, often reflecting both Islamic and indigenous influences.[203]
The cultural diffusion ofSomali commercial enterprise can be detected in itscuisine, which contains Southeast Asian,Persian andArab influences. Due to the Somali people's passionate love for and facility with poetry, Somalia has often been referred to by scholars as a "Nation of Poets" and a "Nation ofBards".[204]
Abdullahi Qarshe, popularly known as the father of Somali music, playing the Somalioud
Somali music is a traditional and contemporary art form that plays an important role in cultural expression and social communication. Most Somali songs arepentatonic. That is, they only use fivepitches peroctave in contrast to aheptatonic (seven note) scale, such as themajor scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia,Sudan orArabia, it is distinguished by its unique melodic structures and performance practices. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration betweenlyricists (midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (Codka or "voice").[205]
Traditional music often features vocal performances accompanied by instruments such as theoud,kaban (a type of lute), and percussion.[206] In pastoral and nomadic contexts, music functions as a medium for storytelling, oral history, and communal events. Religious music, particularly devotional chants, is also present within the broader musical tradition. In the mid-20th century, Somali music incorporated external influences and expanded through state-supported cultural initiatives and media broadcasts.[207]
Somali cinema developed out of the country's strong oral storytelling traditions, with the first feature-length films and film festivals appearing in the early 1960s, soon after Somalia gained independence. The establishment of theSomali Film Agency (SFA) in 1975 marked a key turning point, leading to a period of rapid growth in the national film sector. This era saw the emergence of influential figures such asHassan Sheikh Mumin, a prominent playwright and composer whose playShabeel Naagood (1965) became a cornerstone of Somali literature and theater. The work, later translated into English asLeopard Among the Women, explores themes such as gender roles, education, and societal change. Although the issues it describes were later to some degree redressed, the work remains a mainstay of Somali literature.[208] Mumin composed both the play itself and the music used in it.[209] The piece is regularly featured in various school curricula, includingOxford University, which first published the English translation under itspress house. In the 1970s and early 1980s, musical dramas known asriwaayado dominated the cinematic landscape, forming a bridge between live performance and film. Filmmakers such asAli Said Hassan andSaid Salah Ahmed contributed to the production of epic and historical films, includingThe Somali Darwish, a major work on the Dervish movement. Technological developments and expanding television access facilitated broader distribution of Somali films during this time. In the 1990s and 2000s, a new wave of more entertainment-oriented movies emerged. Referred to asSomaliwood, this upstart, youth-based cinematic movement has energized the Somali film industry and in the process introduced innovative storylines, marketing strategies and production techniques. The young directors Abdisalam Aato of Olol Films and Abdi Malik Isak are at the forefront of this quiet revolution.[210]
Traditional Somali art includespottery,jewelry, andwood carving, with men historically responsible for carving and women fortextile production. In the medieval period, wealthy urban patrons often commissioned local artisans to decorate interiors with intricate wood and marble carvings, especially within homes,mihrabs, andpillars of ancient Somalimosques, which frequently featured elaborate geometric and floral motifs. Among nomadic communities, artistic woodwork was common in everyday objects such as spoons, combs, and bowls, as well as in more complex constructions like the portableaqal house. In recent decades, traditional carving techniques have been increasingly supplemented by workshop-based production using electrical machinery.[211]
Additionally,henna is particularly prominent in festive and ceremonial contexts such asEid and weddings. Somali women apply henna to their hands, feet, and arms (often in floral and geometric patterns similar to those seen in theArabian peninsula) and usekohl (kuul) around the eyes for decorative purposes. Usage of theeye cosmetic in the Horn region is believed to date to the ancientLand of Punt.[212]
Clothing
Somali clothing reflects the nation's deep-rooted Islamic faith, nomadic heritage, and coastal trade influences. Traditional Somali attire is designed for modesty, comfort in a hot climate, and social or religious significance.
Macawis, asarong-like garment wrapped around the waist, often worn with a plain or embroidered shirt. It is the most common traditional attire for Somali men in daily life.[213]
Khamiis (Thobe), A long, loose-fitting robe similar to the Arab thobe, typically white or light-colored, worn for prayer and formal events.[214]
Jubbah, A ceremonial outer robe, similar to theBisht, richly decorated with embroidery and tassels. Worn by religious figures, elders, and traditional leaders, it symbolizes authority and respect.
A Somali woman in traditional nomadic attire during the culture week.A Somali schoolgirl.
Women
Dirac, a light, flowing dress made of chiffon or cotton, worn over an underskirt (gorgorad) and a blouse. It is often worn for special occasions, weddings, or religious festivals. It is a long, light, diaphanousvoile dress made ofsilk,chiffon,taffeta or saree fabric. The dirac is usually sparkly and very colorful, the most popular styles being those with gilded borders or threads.[213]
Guntiino, a traditional garment wrapped around the body and tied at the shoulders, often worn by rural women. It is one of the oldest forms of Somali dress. The cloth is usually made out ofalindi, which is a textile that is common in the Horn region and some parts of North Africa.
Hijab and Shayla, a Somali women typically wear the hijab (headscarf), often paired with a long shawl (shayla) referred to asshaash or jilbab for added modesty. Traditional Arabian garb, such as thejilbab andabaya, is also commonly worn.[213] * Garbasaar, a large, colorful shawl used to wrap the upper body or head, often used for decoration or to shield from the sun.Garbasaar, a large, colorful shawl used to wrap the upper body or head, often used for decoration or to shield from the sun.
Jewelery, Somali women have a long tradition of wearinggold jewelry, particularlybangles. During weddings, the bride is frequently adorned in gold. Many Somali women by tradition also wear goldnecklaces and anklets.[213]
Somalistamp showcasing an athlete symbolizing athleticism and national pride
Sports play an important role in Somali society, with football being the most popular and widely followed sport. The main domestic competitions include theSomalia League andSomalia Cup, while the national team, known as theOcean Stars, represents the country in international tournaments. The team is multi ethnic.[215]Basketball is also played in the country. TheFIBA Africa Championship 1981 was hosted in Mogadishu from 15 to 23 December 1981, during which thenational basketball team received the bronze medal.[216] The squad also takes part in thebasketball event at thePan Arab Games. Other team sports include badminton, baseball, table tennis, and volleyball.[215]
In individual sports, Somali athletes have participated in a range of disciplines, including judo, boxing, athletics, weightlifting, swimming, rowing, fencing, and wrestling.[215] In martial arts,Faisal Jeylani Aweys and Mohamed Deq Abdulle achieved notable success by winning silver and fourth place, respectively, at the 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup. Mohamed Jama has earned international recognition by securing both world and European titles inK1 andThai Boxing.[217] Somali athletes have gained international prominence in long-distance running, with figures such asMo Farah,Abdi Bile andMohammed Ahmed achieving global success.
Somali cuisine reflects a diverse mix of different culinary influences. Drawing fromArab,Indian, andItalian flavours, it is shaped by Somalia's history of trade and commerce.[218] The aftermath ofItalian colonial rule in Somalia left a culinary influence that is seen in the widespread adoption ofpasta (baasto), usually served with a sauce (suugo), andlasagne.[219][220]
The foundation of Somali dishes encompasses staples likerice andpasta, paired with a type ofmeat such aslamb,beef, orchicken. Somali culinary traditions includecamel meat andmilk, which are considered delicacies and important components in the diets ofpastoralists.[221] Coastal communities also incorporateseafood into their meals. Aromaticspices such ascumin,cardamom, and coriander are frequently utilized to add flavor to dishes.[222][223]
Somali rice, the usual staple fordinner orlunch, is typicallyseasoned and mixed with variousingredients such asmeat,vegetables, and,raisins. It is not uncommon for this dish to be presented in a visually appealing manner by incorporating multiple colors. The dish may be artificially tinted with shades of yellow or orange usingsaffron and otherspices to enhance its aesthetic appeal.[227]
Somali rice (bariis) and fish (kalluun), Liver (beer) with vegetable also (Sabaayad) pancakes
Tea andcoffee are also really popular. Somalis were among the early adopters ofcoffee consumption and the first individuals documented to have enjoyed this drink. Additionally, Somali merchants were some of the first to exportcoffee beans.[228][229] The methods for preparing Somali coffee, known locally as 'Qahwo', and tea ('Shah'), involves mixing variousspices together to enhance their flavor profile.[230] Bun, which consists of coffee beans fried inghee and infused with spices, is traditionally served during religious or social gatherings.[231]
'Xalwo', which is closely associated with 'Halva', is a smooth jelly-like treat that is made with a mixture ofspices, seeds,nuts, andcaramelizedsugar.[232][233] Thisconfection is commonly served together with biscuits and Somali tea. After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed usingfrankincense orincense (unsi), which is prepared inside anincense burner referred to as adabqaad.[234]
Somali literature encompasses a longstanding oral and written tradition, with poetry serving as a central medium for cultural expression, historical transmission, and social discourse. Somali scholars have for centuries contributed toIslamic literature, producing works in fields such as poetry andHadith. Early Somali writing was primarily in Arabic script andWadaad writing, a system used by religious scholars and their associates.[235] Although Arabic was the preferred language for formal scholarship, Somali-language manuscripts were also produced, particularly in the form of religious poetry (Qasida), recitations, and chants. The rest of the historical literature in Somali largely consists of translations from Arabic.[236] Among these texts are the Somali poems bySheikh Uways and Sheikh Ismaaciil Faarah. The rest of the existing historical literature in Somali principally consists of translations of documents from Arabic.[237]
This Qasida byUways Al-Barawi called theHadiyat al-ʿAnam ila Qabr al-Nabi (Guidance of Humanity to the Tomb of the Prophet) extols Muhammad.[238]
إذا ماشئت تيسير المراد فصل على رسولك خير هادى وقل مستنجدا في كل ناد صلاة الله مانادى المنادى على المختار مولانا الحماد حبيب الله افضل من ترقى وقبره فاق كرسيا ومرقى وكل مواضع الخيرات صدقا يفوح المسك والريحان حقا لقبر محمد نور الفؤاد تنور جميع ارجاء الحبيب - يرى الانوار قاصده بطيب ويلقاه البعيد مع القريب - يعم الال جيران الحبيب بعرف عبيره اهل البلاد
—Uways Al BarawiHadiyat al-ʿAnam ila Qabr al-Nabi
Translation:
Whenever you wish to make easy your objective then give a prayer to your messenger [Muhammad] the best of Guides And say, seeking aid in every circle blessings ofAllah, as the crier cries on the Chosen, our master the praised
Beloved of Allah preferred of those who ascended, his tomb is above any throne or high place As in every pious place, sincerely musk and spices give fragrances, truly to the tomb of Muhammad light of the heart
Every aspect of the Habib gives light the one who seeks him, sees the lights with goodness The distances meets it along with the near it will encompass the family, the neighbors of the beloved As well as the people of the community, with knowledge of his fragrance
Somalis for centuries have practiced a form ofcustomary law, which they callxeer. Xeer is apolycentric legal system where there is no monopolistic agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted. It is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. Given the dearth ofloan words from foreign languages within the xeer's nomenclature, the customary law appears to have evolved in situ.[239]
Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle ofjus cogens ininternational law: payment ofblood money (locally referred to asdiya ormag), assuring good inter-clan relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets and guests), family obligations such as the payment ofdowry, and sanctions for eloping, rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources, providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds, donating livestock and other assets to the poor.[240] The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount ofspecialization of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can findodayal (judges),xeer boggeyaal (jurists),guurtiyaal (detectives),garxajiyaal (attorneys),murkhaatiyal (witnesses) andwaranle (police officers) to enforce the law.[241]
In ancient Somalia,pyramidical structures known in Somali astaalo were a popular burial style. Hundreds of thesedry stone monuments are found around the country today. Houses were built ofdressed stone similar to the ones inAncient Egypt.[77] There are also examples ofcourtyards and large stone walls enclosing settlements, such as theWargaade Wall.
The peaceful introduction ofIslam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history broughtIslamic architectural influences fromArabia andPersia. This had the effect of stimulating a shift in construction from drystone and other related materials tocoral stone,sundried bricks, and the widespread use oflimestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designs, such as mosques, were built on the ruins of older structures. This practice would continue over and over again throughout the following centuries.[243]
The Somali people primarily inhabit the Horn of Africa, in a region often referred to as Greater Somalia. This area encompasses the modern-day nation of Somalia as well as parts of Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia (the Somali Region), and northeastern Kenya.[248][41][249] These territories are historically and culturally linked through shared language, religion, and clan affiliations. The concept of Greater Somalia reflects a longstanding national identity that predates colonial borders. Following the outbreak of the Somali civil war in the early 1990s, significant numbers of Somalis were displaced, leading to the emergence of a widespread global diaspora. Today, substantial Somali communities are found in countries such as theUnited Arab Emirates,[250]Saudi Arabia,Yemen United States, the United Kingdom,[251] Canada,[252] Sweden,[253] Norway,[254] and the Netherlands among others, where they have established diaspora communities while maintaining strong transnational ties to their homeland.[255] UN migration estimates of the international migrant stock 2015 suggest that 1,998,764 people from Somalia were living abroad.[256][257][258]
Genetics
Uniparental lineages
According toY chromosome studies by Sanchez et al. (2005), Cruciani et al. (2004, 2007), the Somalis are paternally closely related to otherAfro-Asiatic-speaking groups inNortheast Africa.[259][260][261] Besides comprising the majority of the Y-DNA in Somalis, theE1b1b (formerly E3b)haplogroup also makes up a significant proportion of the paternal DNA ofEthiopians,Sudanese,Egyptians,Berbers,North African Arabs, as well as manyMediterranean populations.[260][262] Sanchez et al. (2005) observed the E-M78 subclade ofE1b1b1a in about 70.6% of their Somali male samples.[259] According to Cruciani et al. (2007), the presence of this sub-haplogroup in the Horn region may represent the traces of an ancient migration fromEgypt/Libya.[Note 1][261]
After haplogroup E1b1b, the second most frequently occurringY-DNA haplogroup among Somalis is the West Asianhaplogroup T (M184).[263] The clade is observed in more than 10% of Somali males generally,[259] with a peak frequency amongst the SomaliDir clan members inDjibouti (100%)[264] and Somalis inDire Dawa (82.4%), a city with a majorityDir population.[265] Haplogroup T, like haplogroup E1b1b, is also typically found among other populations of Northeast Africa, theMaghreb, theNear East and the Mediterranean.[266]
Deep subclade E-Y18629 is commonly found in Somalis and has a formation date of 3,700 YBP (years before present) and a TMRCA of 3,300 YBP.[267]
According tomtDNA studies a significant proportion of the maternal lineages of Somali females consists of sub saharan clades such as L haplogroup, the most frequently observed haplogroups are L0a1d, L2a1h and L3f.[268]
African mitochondrial (mt) phylogeny is coarsely resolved but the majority of population data generated so far is limited to the analysis of the first hypervariable segment (HVS-1) of the control region (CR). Therefore, this study aimed on the investigation of the entire CR of 190 unrelated Somali individuals to enrich the severely underrepresented African mtDNA pool. The majority (60.5 %) of the haplotypes were of sub-Saharan origin with L0a1d, L2a1h and L3f being the most frequently observed haplogroups.Our sub-Saharan samples consisted almost entirely of the L1 or L2 haplogroups only. In addition, there existed a significant amount of homogeneity within the M1 haplogroup. This sharp cline indicates a history of little admixture between these regions. This could imply a more recent ancestry for M1 in Africa, as older lineages are more diverse and widespread by nature, and may be an indication of a back-migration into Africa from the Middle East."[269]
M1 haplogroup is also observed at a rate of over.[270][269] This mitochondrial clade is common among Ethiopians and North Africans, particularlyEgyptians andAlgerians.[271][272] M1 is believed to have originated in Asia,[273] where its parent M clade represents the majority of mtDNA lineages.[274]
"We analysed mtDNA variation in ~250 persons from Libya, Somalia, and Congo/Zambia, as representatives of the three regions of interest. Our initial results indicate a sharp cline in M1 frequencies that generally does not extend into sub-Saharan Africa. While our North and especially East African samples contained frequencies of M1 over 20%,
Autosomal ancestry
Genetic components present in select Horn African populationsGenetic components present in select Cushitic/HOA populations (Hollfelder, Nina et al., 2017)A young Somali man.
Research shows that Somalis have a mixture of a type of native African ancestry unique and autochthonous to theHorn of Africa, as well as ancestry originating from a non-African back-migration. A medical genomics study concluded that its data reveal a remarkably homogeneous Somali population that shares an ancient origin with Afro-Asiatic-speaking groups in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East.[275]
According to anautosomal DNA study by Hodgson et al. (2014), the Afro-Asiatic languages were likely spread across Africa and the Near East by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified non-African genetic component, which the researchers dub as the "Ethio-Somali". This component today is most common among Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. It reaches a frequency peak among ethnic Somalis, representing the majority of their ancestry. The Ethio-Somali component is most closely related to the Maghrebi non-African genetic component, and is believed to have diverged from all other non-African ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period from the Near East, having crossed over into northeastern Africa via theSinai Peninsula. The population then likely split into two branches, with one group heading westward toward theMaghreb and the other moving south into the Horn.[276] Ancient DNA analysis indicates that this foundational ancestry in the Horn region is akin to that of Neolithic farmers of the southernLevant.[277]
Furthermore, according to Hodgson et al. both the African ancestry (Ethiopic) and the non-African ancestry (Ethio-Somali) in Cushitic speaking populations is significantly differentiated from all neighboring African and non-African ancestries today. The overall genetic ancestry of Cushitic and Semitic speaking populations in the Horn of Africa represents ancestries not found outside of HOA populations. The researchers state:
"The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia."[278]
Moreover, Hodgson et al. (2014) elaborates further:
"We find that most of the non-African ancestry in the HOA can be assigned to a distinct non-African origin Ethio-Somali ancestry component, which is found at its highest frequencies in Cushitic and Semitic speaking HOA populations."[279]
Molinaro, Ludovica et al. in 2019 characterized the Non-African ancestry in Ethiopian Somalis as being derived from Anatolia Neolithic groups (similar to Tunisian Jews).[280] Ali, A.A., Aalto, M., Jonasson, J. et al. (2020) using principal component analysis showed that approximately 60% of Somali ancestry is East African and 40% Western Eurasian.[275]
The scholarly term for research concerning Somalis and Greater Somalia isSomali studies. It consists of several disciplines such asanthropology,sociology,linguistics,historiography andarchaeology. The field draws from oldSomali chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Somalis from explorers and geographers in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1980, prominentSomalist scholars from around the world have also gathered annually to hold the International Congress of Somali Studies.
^Cruciani et al. 2007 use the term Northeastern Africa to refer to Egypt and Libya, as shown in Table 1 of the study. Prior toCruciani et al. 2007,Semino et al. 2004 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSemino_et_al.2004 (help) East Africa as a possible place of origin of E-M78, based upon Ethiopian testing. This was because of the high frequency and diversity of E-M78 lineages in the region of Ethiopia. However,Cruciani et al. 2007 were able to study more data, including populations from North Africa who were not represented in theSemino et al. 2004 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSeminoMagriBenuzziLin2004 (help) study, and found evidence that the E-M78 lineages which make up a significant proportion of some populations in that region, were relatively young branches (see E-V32 below). They therefore concluded that "Northeast Africa" was the likely place of origin of E-M78 based on "the peripheral geographic distribution of the most derived subhaplogroups with respect to northeastern Africa, as well as the results of quantitative analysis of UEP and microsatellite diversity". So according toCruciani et al. 2007 E-M35, the parent clade of E-M78, originated in East Africa, subsequently spread to Northeast Africa, and then there was a "back migration" of E-M215 chromosomes that had acquired the E-M78 mutation.Cruciani et al. 2007 therefore note this as evidence for "a corridor for bidirectional migrations" between Northeast Africa (Egypt and Libya in their data) on the one hand and East Africa on the other. The authors believe there were "at least 2 episodes between 23.9–17.3 ky and 18.0–5.9 ky ago".
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^Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi,Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.1
^The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy by A.M. Issa-Salwe (Page 1)
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^Abdi, Abdulqadir (1993).Divine Madness. Zed Books. p. 101.to the Dervish cause, such as the Ali Gheri, the Mullah's maternal kinsmen and his first converts. In fact, Swayne had instructions to fine the Ali Gheri 1000 camels for possible use in the upcoming campaign
^*Bartram, R (1903).The annihilation of Colonel Plunkett's force. The Marion Star.By his marriage he extended his influence from Abyssinia, on the west, to the borders of Italian Somaliland, on the east. TheAli Gheri were his first followers. *Hamilton, Angus (1911).Field Force.Hutchinson & Co. p. 50.it appeared for the nonce as if he were content with the homage paid to his learnings and devotional sincerity by the Ogaden and Dolbahanta tribes. TheAli Gheri were his first followers *Leys, Thomson (1903).The British Sphere.Auckland Star. p. 5.Ali Gheri were his first followers, while these were presently joined by two sections of the Ogaden
^Samatar, Said (1992).In the Shadow of Conquest.The Red Sea Press. p. 68.this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country, I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.
^Foreign Department-External-B, August 1899, N. 33-234, NAI, New Delhi, Inclosure 2 in No. 1. And inclosure 3 in No. 1.
^F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad To The Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899
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^Lewis, I. M. (1999).A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. pp. 11–12.ISBN978-0-85255-280-3.But it is their Arabian ancestry which traditionally is their greatest pride. Ultimately all Somali genealogies go back to Arabian origins, to the Prophet's lineage of Quraysh and those of his companions. (...) Nevertheless, it is their proud pretensions to noble Arabian origins which unite all the Somali clans and lineages into one vast genealogical system.
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^Cabrera, Vicente M.; Abu-Amero, Khaled K.; Larruga, José M.; González, Ana M. (2010). "The Arabian peninsula: Gate for Human Migrations Out of Africa or Cul-de-Sac? A Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeographic Perspective".The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 79–87.doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2719-1_6.ISBN978-90-481-2718-4.
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^Hodgson, Jason A.; Mulligan, Connie J.; Al-Meeri, Ali; Raaum, Ryan L. (12 June 2014)."Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa".PLOS Genetics.10 (6) e1004393.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393.ISSN1553-7404.PMC4055572.PMID24921250.The African Ethiopic ancestry is tightly restricted to HOA populations and likely represents an autochthonous HOA population. The non-African ancestry in the HOA, which is primarily attributed to a novel Ethio-Somali inferred ancestry component, is significantly differentiated from all neighboring non-African ancestries in North Africa, the Levant, and Arabia.
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