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Somali Democratic Republic | |||||||||||
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| 1969–1991 | |||||||||||
| Anthem: Soomaaliya Ha Noolaato (Somali) "National anthem of Somalia" | |||||||||||
-Blue_version.svg) | |||||||||||
| Capital | Mogadishu | ||||||||||
| Official languages | Somali | ||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam | ||||||||||
| Demonym | Somali | ||||||||||
| Government | Unitarycommunist state[1] | ||||||||||
| President | |||||||||||
• 1969–1991 | Siad Barrea | ||||||||||
| Vice President | |||||||||||
• 1976–1991 | Mohammad Ali Samatar | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Cold War Arab Cold War | ||||||||||
| 21 October 1969 | |||||||||||
| 13 July 1977 | |||||||||||
| 9 April 1978 | |||||||||||
| 1982-1983 | |||||||||||
| 26 January 1991 | |||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||
• Total | 637,657[2] km2 (246,201 sq mi) (40th) | ||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||
• 1972[3] | 2,941,000 | ||||||||||
| Currency | Somali shilling[4] (SOS) | ||||||||||
| Calling code | 252 | ||||||||||
| ISO 3166 code | SO | ||||||||||
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| Today part of | Somalia Somalilandb | ||||||||||
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President of Somalia
Overthrow  | ||
TheSomali Democratic Republic (Somali:Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiga Soomaaliyeed;Arabic:جمهورية الصومال الديمقراطية;Italian:Repubblica Democratica Somala) was aMarxist-Leninist state in Somalia that existed from 1969 to 1991.
Established in October 1969, the Somali Democratic Republic emerged following acoup d'état led by Major GeneralMohamed Siyaad Barre and theSomali military.[5][6][7][8] The coup took place six days after the assassination ofAbdirashid Shermarke, the second President of theSomali Republic.[7] Barre's administration governed Somalia for the next 21 years until the rise of Ethiopian-backed Somali rebel groups, which ultimately led to the government's collapse and the onset ofcivil war in 1991.[9]
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Abdirashid Shermarke, the 2nd president of Somalia, was assassinated outside the municipal headquarters ofLas Anod in Northern Somalia on 15 October 1969. Shermarke had been visiting drought-stricken areas in the northeast when the assassin, Said Yusuf Ismail, shot and killed him.[10]
Henry Kissinger, thenUnited States National Security Advisor, concluded that the assassin acted independently.[11] Sharmarke was elected in 1964 with support from the Soviet Union and other communist states during his campaign.[12]
On 21 October 1969, at 3:00 a.m., General Siyaad,Jama Ali Korshel,Salaad Gabeyre Kediye,Mohamed Ainanshe Guled, and the military overthrew the parliamentary government of the priorSomali republic. In the1969 Somali coup d'état.[13] One of the primary causes of the coup was widespread corruption, and mishandling of public funds within the Somali government. Consequently, many members of the police and armed forces had become disillusioned with the direction of the country.[14]
The assassin, of former President Abdirashid Shermarke Ismail, was tried, tortured, and executed by theSupreme Revolutionary Council. Notably, Ismail shared the same clan background as President Shermarke.[15]
In 1970, one year after the coup, Siad Barre declared Somalia to be asocialist state and set upon the 'Somalization' of the country, essentially a grand scheme to diminish clan loyalties and create a 'dutiful Somali' country.[16][17] TheSupreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), whichcame to power following President Shermarke's assassination, was led by Lieutenant GeneralSalaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of PoliceJama Ali Korshel. Kediye held the official title of "Father of the Revolution", and shortly thereafter, Barre became the head of the SRC.[18] The SRC arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the National Assembly, and suspended the constitution.[19][4]
The Somali revolutionary army initiated large-scale public works programs in 1972, and successfully implemented an urban and ruralliteracy campaign, thus significantly increasing the literacy rate. By 1986 the literacy rate in Somalia was said to be 60% due to the massive success of this campaign.[20]
In addition to anationalization program for industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy emphasized Somalia's traditional and religious ties with theArab world, leading to its eventual membership in theArab League (AL) in 1974.[21] That same year, Barre also served aschairperson of theOrganisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of theAfrican Union (AU).[22] Somalia also initially adhered to a populistcommunist philosophy. Consequently, Barre's regime lent support to various anti-colonial movements, including the rebellion in South Africa against that country's then-rulingapartheid government. As chairman of theOrganisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1974, a rotating seat, Barre invited theANC as an equal member and gave them a platform to have their voices heard. Barre's government also trained South African guerillas and gave them access to military hardware and naval assets.[23]
On July 1976, Barre’s SRC disbanded and established theSomali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as a one-party government based onscientific socialism and Somali-Islamic principles. The SRSP aimed to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion, emphasizingIslamic principles of social progress, equality, and justice. The government argued that these principles formed the core ofscientific socialism, along with a focus onself-sufficiency, public participation, popular control, and direct ownership of themeans of production. While the SRSP encouraged limited private investment, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed associalist.[4]
During their early communist phase, Siad Barre and his military junta were initially quite supportive of various fledgling administrations and anti-colonial movements. In 1974, the Somali government invited trainee pilots and technicians fromBurundi for a two-year-long capacity training programme with theSomali Air Force, which at that time was one of the strongest air powers on the continent. Before their training, the Burundi Air Force consisted of only three pilots who had received training inEgypt andFrance. This number grew to 18 with the help of Somali pilots and instructors.[24][25]
Barre was also the only head of state to attendMozambique's independence celebrations. Along with theSoviet Union andCuba, Barre also sent martial reinforcements to assist the government ofSamora Machel againstRhodesian andPortuguese forces. Rhodesian guerrillas inMaputo at the time "bragged to Portuguese correspondents that Somali tanks will be used in future operations againstIan Smith’s forces.[26] In their struggle against the Rhodesians,Zambia appealed to other African countries for military support. On 27 June 1977, PresidentKenneth David Kaunda speaking to a crowd of Zambians inLusaka announced that Somalia's armed forces were prepared to aid his country against theRhodesians.[27]Somali Air Force pilots stood on standby to fly ZambianMiGs in case of a war.[28]
Despite these relations, however, Barre's administration was also one of the few governments on the continent that maintained regular and extensive contacts withSouth Africa's apartheid regime. The Somali government would grow increasingly closer with the RSA during the 1980s, as it progressively abandoned its initial communist philosophy. After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden War campaign, Mogadishu now sought new allies and approached Pretoria for assistance. Barre viewed the South African government as a potential partner on account of the RSA's own military struggle against communist forces. A South African delegation was subsequently hosted in Somalia's capital in May 1984, where the Somali Defense Minister declared that "RSA and Somalia have the same aggressors". Sharing of military intelligence characterized the two administrations' relationship. The South African government also hoped to secure a position as an armaments supplier for the Somali military, with a view toward using Somalia as an entree into theMiddle Eastern weapons market.[29]
On 13 July 1977, theOgaden War againstEthiopia erupted when Barre's government aimed to annex the predominantly Somali-inhabitedOgaden region into a Pan-SomaliGreater Somalia. This conflict was part of a broader SNA initiative to unify all Somali territories, known as Soomaaliweyn. TheUSSR, finding itself initially supplying both sides of the war, attempted to mediate a ceasefire. When their efforts failed, the Soviets abandoned Somalia. All aid to Siad Barre's regime was halted, while arms shipments to Ethiopia were increased. Soviet military aid (second in magnitude only to the October 1973 gigantic resupplying of Syrian forces during theYom Kippur War) and advisors flooded into the country along with around 15,000Cuban combat troops. Other communist countries offered assistance: thePeople's Democratic Republic of Yemen offered military assistance andNorth Korea helped train a "People's Militia";East Germany likewise offered training, engineering and support troops.[31] As the scale of communist assistance became clear in November 1977, Somalia broke diplomatic relations with the USSR and expelled all Soviet citizens from the country.
In the first week of the war, theSomali National Army achieved remarkable victories over Ethiopian forces. Such as theBattle of Jijiga in mid September 1977.[32] Somalia was easily overpowering Ethiopian military hardware and technology capability.ArmyGeneralVasily Petrov of theSoviet Armed Forces had to report back toMoscow the "sorry state" of theEthiopian army. The 3rd and 4th EthiopianInfantry Divisions that suffered the brunt of the Somali invasion had practically ceased to exist.[33] This initial success surprised many American military observers who maintained a neutral stance. Southern and centralOgaden were quickly captured, and throughout much of the conflict, the Somali Army continued to defeat theEthiopian Army, advancing as far asSidamo andBale. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden, capturing strategic cities likeJijiga and exerting heavy pressure onDire Dawa, thereby threatening the train route from that city toDjibouti.
Because of theSino-Soviet rivalry,China supported Somalia diplomatically and with token military aid.Romania underNicolae Ceauşescu had a habit of breaking with Soviet policies and maintained good diplomatic relations with Siad Barre. By 17 August, elements of the Somali army had reached the outskirts of the strategic city ofDire Dawa. Not only was the country's second largest military airbase located here, as well as Ethiopia's crossroads into the Ogaden, but Ethiopia's rail lifeline to the Red Sea ran through this city, and if the Somalis held Dire Dawa, Ethiopia would be unable to export its crops or bring in equipment needed to continue the fight. Gebre Tareke estimates the Somalis advanced with two motorized brigades, one tank battalion and one BM battery upon the city; against them were the Ethiopian Second Militia Division, the 201 Nebelbal battalion, 781 battalion of the 78th Brigade, the 4th Mechanized Company, and a tank platoon possessing two tanks.[34] Following the siege ofHarar, a massive and unprecedented Soviet intervention occurred, involving 20,000 Cuban troops and several thousand Soviet advisers supporting Ethiopia's communistDerg regime. On 15 March 1978, aceasefire was negotiated, bringing an end to the war. This shift in Soviet support prompted the Barre government to seek new allies, eventually turning to the United States, which had been courting Somalia for some time as a counter to Soviet influence. Ultimately, Somalia's initial alliance with the Soviet Union and subsequent partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.[35]
On 9 April 1978 a coup was attempted,[36] against the Somali government of PresidentSiad Barre. The United StatesCentral Intelligence Agency estimated that the coup, led by former ColonelMohamed Osman Irro, alongside him Lieutenant ColonelAbdullahi Yusuf Ahmed who both served in the Ogaden war, involved around 24 officers, 2,000 soldiers, and 65 tanks.
Gunfire broke out in the city ofAfgooye, south of the capitalMogadishu, small arms fire and explosions were heard on the outskirts of the capital.[37] The coup was originally planned to start inHargeisa, a city in northern Somalia, but Barre likely knew of the attempt in advance and was able to disrupt the coup before it launched, as well as position forces loyal to himself in the capital.[38] The attempted coup ended in a disastrous failure, 17 alleged ringleaders, including Osman, weresummarily executed byfiring squad,[39] and Abdullahi Yusuf fled to the neighboring country of Ethiopia, which was considered an enemy by the Somali government.[40] Barre used the coup as justification topurge certain members belonging to the same clan as the men involved in the coup from government and military positions.[41]
After fleeing Somalia Abdullahi Yusuf and his men would find an armed anti-Siad Barre militia backed by theDerg regime in Ethiopia,[42] 'created, organized, trained and financed by Ethiopia'.[43] Initially called the Somali Salvation Front (SSF; later theSomali Salvation Democratic Front, SSDF),[44] which would soon oppose the Somali government. Barre blamed the coup attempt on theEastern Bloc, namely theSoviet Union andCuba, countries that supported Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, he labeled them "new imperialists".[37] The CIA determined that the Soviet Union was not behind the coup attempt, but were ultimately seeking to remove Barre from rule.[45]
Between June and August 1982 the Ethiopian military, supported by hundreds of SSDF rebels led byAbdullahi Yusuf invaded centralSomalia. After a SNA force infiltrated theOgaden, joined with the WSLF and attacked an Ethiopian army unit outsideShilabo, about 150 kilometers northwest ofBeled weyne,Ethiopia retaliated by launching an operation againstSomalia.
On June 30, 1982, Ethiopian army units, together with SSDF guerrillas, struck at several points along Ethiopia's southern border with Somalia, the operation initially aimed to advance all the way to theSomali coastline[46] and ultimatelyoverthrow the Barre regime.[47] Which ended in a Stalemate at border towns ofGaldogob andBalanbale about 50 kilometers northwest ofGalcaio. Further Ethiopian attacks were repulsed by the SNA. Although Ethiopia aligned with the SSDF rebels had a larger army then theSNA,[48] with approximately 10,000 to 15,000 Ethiopian troops, equipped with Soviet-supplied MIG fighters andT-55 tanks, launched an invasion,[49][50] and were accompanied by 2,000 to 5,000Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) rebels, who were similarly armed with tanks and received support from Ethiopian artillery and air forces.[50][51]Ethiopian troops and SSDF Rebels failed to capture the key cities ofGalkayo andBeledweyne, as the Somali army successfully repelled the main assault.[52] Due to Siad Barre’s efforts there was an upsurge in domestic support for Somali PresidentSiad Barre during the 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War.[53]
In 1979, a new constitution was introduced, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. Despite this, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) continued to maintain control.[6] In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and theSupreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.[4] The regime weakened further in the 80's as theCold War drew to a close, diminishing Somalia's strategic importance.
The government'stotalitarian grip[54][55] culminated in theIsaaq genocide (1987–1989), in response to the attacks the Somali government suffered by militant groups such as the1970 Zeila uprising (done byMohamed Farah Dalmar Yusuf subsequent key member of the SNM) and later bombings within the city ofHargeisa by theSomali National Movement (SNM) a militant rebel organization backed by Ethiopia of predominantly Isaaq supporters. This response which devastated several major cities and at timws targeted members of theIsaaq clan. Civilian death estimates range from 50,000 to 100,000.[56][57][58] Groups opposed to Barre’s regime predominantly supported by Ethiopia, emerged across the country and eventually led to theSomali Civil War. Among these militia groups were theSomali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF),[44] theUnited Somali Congress (USC),[59] theSomali National Movement (SNM), and theSomali Patriotic Movement (SPM), alongside non-violent political opposition such as theSomali Democratic Movement (SDM), theSomali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). On the 26th of January 1991, Barre wasousted from power, and subsequently Somalia immediatelydescended into chaos in the wake of civil war.[citation needed]
A new Constitution was ratified on 25 August 1979 through apopular referendum, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. This Constitution established a presidential system, wherein the president served as both the head of state and the head of government. As head of government, the president appointed the members of theCouncil of Ministers, which he chaired. Initially, the Constitution stipulated that the president would be elected for a six-year renewable term by a two-thirds majority vote of the legislature.[60]
The Somali Democratic Republic functioned as a unitary republic under theMarxist-Leninist single-party rule of first theSupreme Revolutionary Council, then theSomali Revolutionary Socialist Party.[61] The only serving president, Siad Barre, exercised totalitarian control over the country through a military dictatorship.[62][63][64]
[…] Military Coups of a new type, which introduced revolutionary regimes self-declared Marxist-Leninist. This is the case of Somalia (1969) and Ethiopia (1974), the most emblematic case, but also of four french-speaking countries: Congo-Brazzaville (1968), Daomey/Benin (1972-74), Madagascar (1975) and Alto Volta/Burkina Faso (1983).
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2025 (link)Ethiopian Army troops and about 2,000 SSDF guerrillas attacked Somalia across the Mudug border, aiming for Galkayo in the north-east and Beletweyn in the centre. The plan was to cut Somalia into two by driving troops all the way to the ocean
the Ethiopian aim was to provide the DFSS with the wherewithal to overthrow President Siad Barre
Yet Siyaad surprised friends and foes alike by turning both events to advantage. His army vigorously repulsed the invaders...
[…] Military Coups of a new type, which introduced revolutionary regimes self-declared Marxist-Leninist. This is the case of Somalia (1969) and Ethiopia (1974), the most emblematic case, but also of four french-speaking countries: Congo-Brazzaville (1968), Daomey/Benin (1972-74), Madagascar (1975) and Alto Volta/Burkina Faso (1983).
In January 1991, Siad Barre's totalitarian rule was defeated. But, rather than uniting his enemies, it worsened the crisis.
In October 1969, General Mohamed Siad Barre took over in a military coup. Siad Barre developed a highly centralised, totalitarian state, and tried unsuccessfully to abolish clan behaviour.
In contrast to Angola and Mozambique, where the Marxist component was associated with National Liberation Movements, those in Ethiopia and Somalia, as well as the four Francophone States, had Marxist Military Revolutions/Regimes after more than a decade of independence.
