Although similarly sunny, Turkey has installed far lesssolar power than Spain.[5]: 49 Solar power is the cheapest source of power[6] and subsidizescoal andfossil gas power.[7]: 9 Every gigawatt of solar power installed would save over US$100 million on gas import costs,[8] and more of the country's electricity might be exported.[9]
Most new solar power is tendered as part ofhybrid power plants.[10][11] Building new solar power plants would be cheaper than running existing import-dependent coal plants if they were not subsidized.[12] However,think tankEmber has listed several obstacles to buildingutility-scale solar plants, such as insufficient new grid capacity for solar power attransformers,[13] a 50 MW cap for any single solar power plant's installed capacity, and large consumers not allowed to sign long-termpower purchase agreements for new solar installations.[12] Ember says there is technical potential for 120 GW ofrooftop solar, almost 10 times 2023 capacity, which they say could generate 45% of the country's 2022 demand.[14]
Turkey is far sunnier than Germany but has much less solar power
Turkey has a sunny climate, ideal for producing solar power.Solar potential is highest in the south-east of the country,[15] andhigh-voltage DC transmission from that region to Istanbul has been suggested.[16] Turkey's average annualsolar irradiance is over 1 millionterrawatt-hours,[17] that is about 1500 kW·h/(m2·yr) or over 4 kW·h/(m2·d).[18][17] Covering less than 5% of the country's land area with solar panels would provide all the energy needed.[19] Solar power may also be preferable to other renewable energy sources such aswind power andhydroelectricity because wind speed and rainfall can be low in summer, which is when demand peaks due toair conditioning.[20]
Turkey has a significant potential for generating energy from solar power[18] compared to nearby countries in Europe; however, in terms of solar capacity per capita, it lags behind European leaders such as Spain and Italy, as well as countries with far inferior solar potential, such as Germany and the Netherlands.[21][22] Turkey's total generation ranks it thirteenth globally insolar power by country, but its per capita solar capacity is thirty-ninth.
Solar water heating has been commonplace in Turkey since the 1970s,[17] but the first licences for solar electricity generation were not granted until 2014.[22]Fatih Birol, executive director of theInternational Energy Agency (IEA), said that in 2021 less than 3% of solar potential was being used.[23]
Since 2021feed-in tariffs for new installations have been inlira (but are maximum about US$0.05 per kWh[21]) and set bythe president,[25] but the 10-year period has been criticised as too short.[26] In 2022 there are many applications forhybrid solar and wind licences.[27] As of 2022[update] there are 9 renewableenergy cooperatives;[28] it has been suggested thatagricultural energy cooperatives would be profitable if farmers had more loans and technical help to establish them.[29] Another state aid model in support of solar power is the so-called "YEKA" (abbreviation for "Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynak Alanları", Renewable Energy Source Areas) model, prioritizing local content manufacturing or use.[30] A successful application of the YEKA was the "Karapınar Solar Energy Plant" in Konya, with 1.000 MWe installed capacity.[31]
According to think tankEmber, building new wind and solar power is cheaper than running existing coal plants which depend on imported coal.[12] But they say that there are obstacles to buildingutility-scale solar, such as lack of new capacity allocated for solar power at transformers,[32] a 50 MW cap for any single solar power plant's installed capacity, and large consumers being unable to sign long-termpower purchase agreements for new unlicensed solar installations.[12][22] Ember recommend thatrooftop solar should be obligatory on newbuildings in Turkey.[14] Owners of these small unlicensed installations cansell to the grid at the same price as they buy.[22]
Solar (yellow band) generates a small but increasing share of electricity
As in many countries for many types ofvariable renewable energy, from time to time the government invites companies to tender sealed bids to construct a certain capacity of solar power to connect to certain electricity substations. By accepting the lowest bid the government commits to buy at that price per kWh for a fixed number of years, or up to a certain total amount of power. This provides certainty for investors against highly volatile wholesale electricity prices.[33][34][35] However they may still risk exchange rate volatility if they borrowed in foreign currency.[36] For example as Turkey does not have enough solar cell manufacturing capacity they would likely be bought from China and so would have to be paid for in foreign currency.[37] In 22/23 a third of solar cell exports from China went to Turkey.[38] However they are subject to tariffs.[39]
In 2021 prices at these "solar auctions" were similar to or lower than average wholesale electricity prices, and large-scale solar for companies own use is also competitive; butmacroeconomic challenges and exchange rate volatility are causing uncertainty.[40]: 63 Installation costs are low[41] and according to the Turkish Solar Energy Industry Association the industry provides jobs for 100,000 people.[42] As part of the fourth round of solar auctions which are planned to total 1000 MW in lots of 50 MW and 100 MW,[43] in April 2022 three lots of 100 MW were auctioned at prices around 400 lira per MWh,[44] around 25euros at the exchange rate at that time.[45] The tender included a 60% foreign exchange weight clause, which partly protects against currency volatility,[45] and selling on the open market is also allowed.[43]
Modelling byCarbon Tracker indicates that new solar power will become cheaper than all existing coal plants by 2023.[46][47] According to a May 2022 report from think tankEmber wind and solar saved 7 billion dollars on gas imports in the preceding 12 months.[32] Every gigawatt of solar power installed would save over US$100 million on gas import costs.[8] According to a 2022 study by Shura almost all coal power could be replaced by renewables (mainly solar) by 2030.[48] Export of solar power could increase together eventually withhydrogen produced by clean electricity.[49]Operation and maintenance costs of concentrated solar power is about 2 UScent/kWh.[50]: 132 As well as reducing electricity prices, above a certain level increasing solar power tends to stabilize them.[51]
In 2023 a standard module made in Turkey cost about 40 uscents compared to about 25 elsewhere.[52]
Sales ofvacuum tube hot water systems have exceededflat-plate collectors since 2019.[17][4]: 139 Vacuum tubes are more efficient for households than flat plate.[53] Turkey is second in the world in solar water heating collector capacity after China,[4]: 41 with about 26 million square metres generating 1.15 milliontonnes of oil equivalent heat energy each year.[17] About two-thirds is residential and a third industrial.[17] Installed domestic hot water systems are typicallyconvection without pumping, with 2 flat plate collectors, each nearly 2 m².[17] Solar combi (space and water heating backed up by gas) is starting to be installed in villas and hotels.[17]
The industry is well developed for hot water with high quality manufacturing and export capacity, but less so for space heating, and is hampered by subsidies for coal heating.[54]: 36 A 2018 study found that solar water heating saved on average 13% energy and increased the value of properties.[55]
In 2021 the IEA recommended that the Turkish government should support solar water heating because "technology and infrastructure quality needs to improve significantly to maximise its potential".[40]
Solar heating is also used foragriculture in Turkey, for example drying produce with solar air heaters.[17]
Karabük solar farm is close to researchers atKarabük University[56]Photovoltaics Installed Capacity and Production in Turkey
Photovoltaics (PV) growth was supported by the government during the 2010s.[40] Monthly averageefficiencies are from 12–17% depending on tilt and climate type;specific yield decreases with elevation.[57] In 2020solar cell manufacturing started in Turkey,[58] and in 2022 Minister of Energy and Natural ResourcesFatih Dönmez claimed that Turkey could assemble enoughsolar panels annually to produce 8 GW of power.[59] Industry sometimes uses its own solar power for processes which need a lot of electricity, such aselectrolysis.[60] As of 2020[update], unlike in the EU, obsolete solar panels are not classified aselectronic waste and recycling criteria are not defined.[61] Solar PV has been suggested at publiccharging stations.[62]Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions attributable to solar PV are estimated at around 30 gCo2eq/kWh for utility scale and 30–60 g for rooftop;[63] emissions forcoal andnatural gas are over 1000 g and about 400 g respectively.
The largest solar farm isKarapınar, which started generation in 2020 and is planned to exceed 1 GW by the end of 2022.[64][65] If a solar power plant is not cleaned for a year it can lose over 5% efficiency.[66] Environmental groups say that half of opencast mines forbrown coal (lignite) in Turkey could be converted to 13 GW of solar farms (some withbattery storage) generating 19 TWh per year, as much of the electrical infrastructure is already in place for the 10 GW of the 22 adjacentlignite-fired power stations.[67] Aluminium producers favour solar as they use a lot of electricity for electrolysis.[68]
As of 2022[update] there is about 1 GW of rooftop solar,[69] companies are installing a lot,[70] and the government is aiming for 2–4 GW by the early 2030s.[71] If total electricity generated by solar panels exceeds 50% of the capacity of the local distribution transformer no more will be approved in that area.[71]
The limit for a household is 10 kW.[21] Thepayback period is very long because electricity from the grid to householders is subsidised a lot. As of 2019[update], the payback period of rooftop solar withnet metering for homeowners and businesses was estimated at 11 years; removal of VAT and the fixed government approval fee, and attaching borrowing for installation to the property's mortgage has been suggested to shorten this.[72]
In general non-residential grid power is more expensive than residential, so the payback period is much shorter. From 2023 new buildings larger than 5,000 square meters will have to generate at least five per cent of their energy from renewables.[73] A 2021 study inAnkara found far more rooftop potential for public and commercial buildings than residential.[74] The study also suggested increasing technical potential by suitable roof design in new buildings.[74] Solar PV used with heat pumps may be able to make buildings zero energy in the Mediterranean Region.[75] Aluminium producerTosyalı [tr] claimed in 2022 to be installing the world's largest rooftop solar power system on the roofs of its buildings.[76]
Farmers are financially supported to install solar panels, for example to power irrigation pumps, and can sell some electricity.[77][78]Agrivoltaics has been suggested as suitable for wheat,[79] maize and some other shade-loving vegetables.[80] Hybrid solar andbiogas has been suggested, for example on dairy farms.[81]Rainwater harvesting has been suggested.[66]
Mehmet Bulut of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources suggested in 2021 thatconcentrated solar power (CSP) could be co-located with photovoltaics in the south-east.[82] CSP systems generate electricity by using lenses or mirrors to reflect the sun's rays onto a central receiver, which converts the light into heat, which in turn is converted to electricity. Turkey's firstsolar power tower, theGreenway CSP Mersin Solar Tower Plant inMersin, was constructed in 2013 and has an installed power of 5 MW.[83]
^"2022 energy outlook"(PDF).Industrial Development Bank of Turkey.transferring money from solar, wind and hydroelectric power plants with low operating costs to power plants with high operating costs such as imported coal and natural gas
^Cagdas Artantas, Onur (2023), Cagdas Artantas, Onur (ed.),"Green Electricity Promotion in Turkey",Promotion of Green Electricity in Germany and Turkey: A Comparison with Reference to the WTO and EU Law, European Yearbook of International Economic Law, vol. 33, Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, pp. 169–187,doi:10.1007/978-3-031-44760-0_7,ISBN978-3-031-44760-0, retrieved8 September 2024
^Kursun, Berrin (9 April 2022). "Role of solar power in shifting the Turkish electricity sector towards sustainability".Clean Energy.6 (2).Oxford University Press:1078–1089.doi:10.1093/ce/zkac002.
^Zaferanchi, Mahdiyeh; Sozer, Hatice (1 January 2022). "Effectiveness of interventions to convert the energy consumption of an educational building to zero energy".International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation.42 (4). Emerald Publishing Limited:485–509.doi:10.1108/IJBPA-08-2021-0114.ISSN2398-4708.S2CID247355490.
