Socotra,[a] locally known asSaqatri,[b] is aYemeni island in theIndian Ocean. Situated between theGuardafui Channel and theArabian Sea, it lies near major shipping routes. Socotra is the largest of the six islands in theSocotra archipelago as it comprises around 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies 380 kilometres (205 nautical miles) south of theArabian Peninsula and 232 km (125 nmi) east of theHorn of Africa.[1] The inhabitants of the island are calledSocotrans, and they speakArabic andSoqotri.
Socotra is home to a high number of unique species that areendemic to it. Up to a third of its plant life is unique. Due to the island's unusual geography, it has been described as "the most alien-looking place on Earth".[2] The island measures 132 km (82 mi) in length and 42 km (26 mi) across at its widest.[3] In 2008, Socotra was recognised as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site.[4]
Scholars' views vary regarding the origin of the island's name. One theory is that the termSocotra may derive from a Greek name that is derived from the name of aSouth Arabian tribe mentioned inSabaic andḤaḍraumitic inscriptions asDhū-Śakūrid (s³krd).[7] Another theory is that the Arabic termSuqutra broken down as follows: Suq, means market, and qutra is a vulgar form of qatir, which refers todragon's blood. The capital city of Socotra wasSuq as reported by the Portuguese in the 16th century, which they referred to asmarket place.[8]
There was initially anOldowan lithic culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area aroundHadibo in 2008.[9] Socotra played an important role in the ancient international trade and appears asDioskouridou (Διοσκουρίδου νῆσος), meaning "the island ofDioscurides" in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea, a first-century AD Greek navigation aid.[10]
TheHoq Cave contains a large number of inscriptions, drawings and archaeological objects. Further investigation showed that these had been left by sailors who visited the island between the first century BC and the sixth century AD. The texts are written in the IndianBrāhmī,South Arabian,Ethiopic,Greek,Palmyrene andBactrian languages. This corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation ofIndian Ocean trade networks in that time period.[11]
In 880, anAksumite expeditionary force conquered the island, and anOriental Orthodox bishop was consecrated. The Ethiopians were later dislodged by a large armada sent by ImamAl-Salt bin Malik ofOman.[12] According to the Persian geographerIbn al-Mujawir, who testifies having arrived in Socotra from India in 1222, there were two groups of people on the island, the indigenous mountain dwellers and the foreign coastal dwellers. There were large settlements of Indian traders fromSindh andBalochistan.[13]
Ibn Hawqal, a 10th-century history chronicler, mentions Socotra in his bookThe Renaissance of Islam. He mentioned it as a prominent source ofpiracy, stating: "the island Socotra in particular was regarded as a dangerous nest of pirates, at which people trembled as they passed it. It was the point d'appui of the Indian pirates who ambushed the Believers there."[14]
Photo of local men from Socotra taken by Charles K. Moser (1918).[17]
In 1834, theEast India Company stationed a garrison on Socotra, in the expectation that the Mahra sultan ofQishn and Socotra would accept an offer to sell the island. The lack of good anchorages proved to be as much a problem for the British as the Portuguese. The sultan refused to sell, and the British left in 1835. After thecapture of Aden by the British in 1839, they lost interest in acquiring Socotra. In 1886, the British government decided to conclude aprotectorate treaty with the sultan in which he promised this time to "refrain from entering into any correspondence, agreement, or treaty with any foreign nation or power, except with the knowledge and sanction of the British Government".[18] In October 1967, in the wake of the departure of the British from Aden and southern Arabia, the Mahra Sultanate was abolished.
Socotra was impacted by the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami which damaged 40 fishing boats, even though the island was 4,600 km (2,858 mi) away from the tsunami epicentre off the west coast ofAceh,Indonesia.[importance?][23] In 2015, the cyclonesChapala andMegh struck the island, causing severe damage to its infrastructure.[24]
Beginning in 2015, the UAE began increasing its presence on Socotra, first with humanitarian aid in the wake of tropical cyclones Chapala and Megh, and eventually establishing a military presence on the island. On 30 April 2018, the UAE, as part of the ongoingSaudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen, landed troops on the island andtook control ofSocotra Airport andseaport.[25] On 14 May 2018, Saudi troops were also deployed on the island, and a deal was brokered between the UAE and Yemen for a joint military training exercise and the return of administrative control of the airport and seaport to Yemen.[26][27] In June 2020, the UAE-backedSouthern Transitional Council (STC) seized control of the islandin a coup, ousting the local authorities and establishing its own government. Although in 2023, thePresidential Leadership Council, Yemen's internationally-recognized government, integrated the STC into the government and recognized the STC's rule of the archipelago. Under its rule, peaceful protests against the coup and the UAE's interference in Socotra were violently dispersed, and journalists who criticized the coup were arrested and beaten.[6]
Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth ofcontinental origin (i.e. not ofvolcanic origin). The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent ofGondwana and detached during theMiocene epoch, in the same set ofrifting events that opened theGulf of Aden to its northwest.[28] The island is culturally and administratively a part of Yemen, but it geographically belongs toAfrica as it represents a continental fragment that is geologically linked to theSomali Plate.[29]
The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra (3,665 km2 or 1,415 sq mi), three smaller islands,Abd al Kuri,Samhah andDarsa, and two rocky islets, Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah, both uninhabitable by humans but important forseabirds.[30] The island is about 125 kilometres (78 mi) long and 45 kilometres (28 mi) north to south.[31] The distance from Socotra toCape Guardafui, its nearest point in the African mainland, is 232 km (125 nmi), and about 351 km (190 nmi) fromRas Fartaq in mainlandArabia.[1] It has three major physical regions:
The narrow coastalplains with its characteristic dunes, formed by monsoon winds blowing during three summer months. The wind takes up the coast sand in a spiral and, as a result, forms the snow-white Socotran sand dunes.
The climate of Socotra is classified in theKöppen climate classification asBWh andBSh, meaning a transitionalhot desert climate and asemi-desert climate with a mean annual temperature over 25 °C (77 °F). Yearly rainfall is light but is roughly spread throughout the year.Orographic lift provided by the interior mountains, especially during the northeast monsoon from October to December, results in the highest inland areas averaging as much as 800 millimetres (31.50 in) per year and receiving over 250 millimetres (9.84 in) per month during November and December.[35] The southwestmonsoon season from June to September brings strong winds and high seas.
In an extremely unusual occurrence, the normallyarid western side of Socotra received more than 410 millimetres (16.14 in) of rain fromCyclone Chapala in November 2015.[36] Cyclones rarely affect the island, but in 2015Cyclone Megh became the strongest, and only, major cyclone to strike the island directly.
TheSocotra archipelago has been dubbed the Galapagos of the Indian Ocean due to its ecological diversity and high rates ofendemism.[38] It has 835 vascular plant species, of which 37% are endemic. Six bird species, 95% of its terrestrial molluscs, and 90% of its reptiles are endemic to the archipelago. A 2016 genetic survey of all Socotran reptiles revealed unexpectedly high levels of cryptic diversity, indicating that the island's actual reptile diversity may be greater than currently recognized.[39] Socotra is home to several native mammals, none of which are endemic.[38]
Due to the dry conditions and small size of the island, its fauna tend to be small.[38]
The island has several native bats and shrews, including theEtruscan shrew, which is the smallest mammal in the world by mass.[40] Socotra is of particular interest to ornithologists. The island has been designated an endemic bird area.[41]
Some of the island's most striking species are its endemic plants and trees. Socotra has many nativedrought resistant plants which have adapted to the island's arid environment by developing large, bulbous stems in which they store their water.[38] One notable example isDendrosicyos socotranus (cucumber tree) which is the only tree in theCucurbitaceae family. This species, which can grow over six meters high, has specialized cells which expand to hold water during wet periods.[38]
Due to the island's long arid periods, several endemic flora have developed an evolutionary strategy of longevity, prioritizing long individual life span over reproduction.[38] These endemic flora are found in dry, low-lying areas of the island, and they grow slowly and rarely fruit or flower.[38] These slow-growing endemic species are particularly vulnerable toclimate warming, as increasing dry periods may prevent them from reproducing.[38] One example is the Dragon's Blood Tree, orDracaena cinnabari, which may be the most well known example of Socotran endemism. The tree contains a bright red sap which is used commercially.[42]D. cinnabari has a very distinct appearance: its trunk branches out into an umbrella-like crown with tightly packed leaves and widespread branches. This plant structure is observed in arid climates which have atmospheric moisture.[38] Tightly packed leaves and wide spread branches facilitate the condensation of water from moisture in the air, and the shade provided by the umbrella crown may prevent evaporation of moisture from the soil.[38] One dragon's blood forest remains on the island.[43] The average age of these trees is approximately 300 years. This suggests that the forest is over-mature, and indicates a decline in new growth.[43]
Socotra's high rates of species diversity and endemism can be attributed to a long period of isolation, as well as extreme climatic conditions which vary spatially and depending on altitude.[38] These conditions have created a variety ofecological niches.[38] Researchers have attempted to date the origins of endemic species in convergence with the geological timeline of the island, which may help discern instances ofvicariant speciation after the island split off from the mainland.[38]
Plant life on Socotra shares floristic similarities with northeast Africa and the Indian subcontinent. The genusDirachma has two species – one is native to Socotra and the other is native toSomalia, over 1000 km away. These species share unique traits, including eight-part flowers.[38] Several of the island's endemic species (members of theEchidnopsis genus, for example) are thought to have evolved from a single colonizing ancestor.[38] Once the colonizing ancestor was cut off from its original gene pool its descendents began todiversify rapidly.[38]
The most ecologically diverse parts of Socotra are its wetrefugia, such as its cliffs and escarpments.[38] These areas receive significantly more rainfall and mist than the rest of the island. These isolated areas in numerous separate areas on the island have allowed for speciation to occur.[38] Species in the refugia are twice as likely to be endemic as species on the rest of the island.[38] The refugia are particularly sensitive to changes in the climate, and have probably expanded and retracted many times over the evolutionary history of the island.[38] The largest wet refugium on the island is theHajhir massif. Incredibly, fifty five of the endemic species on the mountains are endemic to that particular refugium.[38]
Socotra has been experiencing a steady decline of vegetation and floral species diversity over the past several decades.[44] These flora are vital for the survival of endemic fauna. Several factors, such as erosion, extreme weather events, and overgrazing may be responsible for this decline.[44] Intensified winds due to rising global temperatures threaten Socotra's old growth forests.[43] Traditional land management which has been practiced by indigenous people on Socotra for thousands of years, is becoming less widespread as the island becomes more influenced by the outside world.[38] Increasing populations of invasive species, such as rats and cats, also threaten the endemic flora and fauna.[44] Species on socotra have evolved in very particular climatic conditions, and their ranges are very restricted. This makes them highly vulnerable to climate change.[45] Without intervention, many of the island's endemic species may face extinction,[44] including potentially numerous cryptic species that have yet to be formally described.[39]
Men at the market square inQulensyaSocotran children
Most of the inhabitants are indigenousSoqotri people fromAl-Mahrah tribe, who are of Southern Arabian descent fromAl Mahrah Governorate,[46] and are said to be especially closely related with the Qara andMahra groups of SouthernArabia.[47] Some of the inhabitants are African, descending from former slaves who settled on the island.[48] The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade ofY-DNA haplogroup J. Several of the female lineages, notably those inmtDNA haplogroup N, are unique to the island.[49]
Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering about 50,000, live on the main island of the archipelago.[50] The principal city,Hadibu (with a population of 8,545 at thecensus of 2004); the second largest town,Qalansiyah (population 3,862); andQād̨ub (population 929) are all located on the north coast of the island of Socotra.[51] Only about 450 people live on 'Abd-al-Kūrī and 100 on Samha; the island of Darsa and theislets of the archipelago are uninhabited.[52]
There is an ancient tradition of poetry and a poetry competition is held annually on the island.[55] The first attested Socotran poet is believed to be the ninth-centuryFatima al-Suqutriyya, a popular figure in Socotran culture.[56]Socotra Swahili is extinct.[57]
Amosque inHadibu showcasing the local architecture
The earliest account concerning the presence of Christians in Socotra stems from the early-medieval 6th century AD Greek merchantCosmas Indicopleustes[58] Later the Socotrans joined theAssyrian church.[59] During the 10th century, Arab geographerAbu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani recorded during his visits that most of the islanders were Christian.[place missing]
Christianity went into decline when theMahra Sultanate took power in the 16th century, and the populace had become mostly Muslim by the time the Portuguese arrived later that century.[60] An 1884 edition ofNature writes that the disappearance of Christian churches and monuments can be accounted for by aWahhabi excursion to the island in 1800.[61] Today the only remnants of Christianity are some cross engravings from the first century CE, a few Christian tombs, and some church ruins.[62]
Public transport on Socotra is limited to a fewminibuses; car hire usually means hiring a 4WD car and a driver.[63][64] Transport is a delicate matter on Socotra as road construction is considered locally to be detrimental to the island and its ecosystem. In particular, damage has occurred via chemical pollution from road construction while new roads have resulted inhabitat fragmentation.[65]
The onlyport on Socotra is 5 kilometres (3 miles) east of Hadibu. Ships connect the port with the Yemeni coastal city ofMukalla. The journey takes 2–3 days, and the service is used mostly for cargo. The UAE funded the modernization of the port on Socotra.[66]
Yemenia andFelix Airways flew fromSocotra Airport toSana'a andAden viaRiyan Airport. As of March 2015, due toongoing civil war involvingSaudi Arabia's Air Force, all flights to and from Socotra were cancelled.[67] During the deployment of Emirati troops and aid to the Island, multiple flight connections were made betweenAbu Dhabi and Hadibu as part of Emirati effort to provide Socotra residents with access to free healthcare and provide work opportunities.[68] Currently, there are weekly scheduled flights from Cairo and Abu Dhabi to Socotra.[69]
Among 19th-century visitors to the island came British celebrity explorersTheodore andMabel Bent, and their party, from mid December 1896 to mid February 1897.[70]
Prior to the construction of the Socotra airport, the island could only be reached by a cargo ship. The ideal time to visit Socotra is from October to April; the remaining months usually have heavy monsoon rainfall, making it difficult for tourists; flights also usually get cancelled.[71] The island lacks any well-established hotels, although there are a few guesthouses for travelers to stay during their short visits.[72] The island received over 1,000 tourists each year until 2014,[73] which has since been affected by the civil war.
Tourism to the island has increased over the years as many operators have begun offering trips to the island, whichGulf Today claimed "will become a dream destination despite the country's conflict". In May 2021, the Ministry of Information stated that the UAE is violating the island and has been planning to control it for years, running illegal trips there for foreign tourists without obtaining any permission from the Yemeni government.[74]
^Zhukov, Valery A. (2014) The Results of Research of the Stone Age Sites in the Island of Socotra (Yemen) in 2008-2012. - Moscow: Triada Ltd. 2014, pps 114, ill. 134 (in Russian)ISBN978-5-89282-591-7.
^Bukharin, Mikhail D.; De Geest, Peter; Dridi, Hédi; Gorea, Maria; Jansen Van Rensburg, Julian; Robin, Christian Julien; Shelat, Bharati; Sims-Williams, Nicholas; Strauch, Ingo (2012). Strauch, Ingo (ed.).Foreign Sailors on Socotra. The inscriptions and drawings from the cave Hoq. Bremen: Dr. Ute Hempen Verlag. p. 592.ISBN978-3-934106-91-8.
^Martin, E. G. (1974). "Mahdism and holy wars in Ethiopia before 1600".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.4: 114.ISSN0308-8421.JSTOR41223140.
^Smith, G. Rex (1985). "Ibn al-Mujāwir on Dhofar and Socotra".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.15:79–92.ISSN0308-8421.JSTOR41223031.
^Moser (formerly United States Consul-General to Aden, Arabia), Charles K. (January–June 1918)."The Isle of Frankincense".The National Geographic Magazine. p. 271.
^A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sunnuds related to India and Neighbouring Countries, Calcutta, 1909, volume VIII, page 185.
^Shobrak, Mohammed; Alsuhaibany, Abdullah; Al-Sagheir, Omer (November 2003)."Status of Breeding Seabirds in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden"(PDF).PERSGA Technical Series (in English and Arabic) (8). Photographs by Abdullah Alsuhaibany. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 February 2019. Retrieved7 May 2013.
^Gintsburg, Sarali; Esposito, Eleonora (2022). "The Asymmetric Linguistic Identities of African Soqotris".Language and Identity in the Arab World. Routledge.ISBN978-1-003-17498-1.
^Morris, Miranda J. (1 January 2013). "The use of 'veiled language' in Soqoṭri poetry".Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies.43:239–244.JSTOR43782882.
^Maho, Jouni Filip (4 June 2009). "G40: Swahili Group".New Updated Guthrie List Online (2nd ed.). p. 49. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 3 February 2018. Retrieved18 June 2022.G411 * . † – Socotra Swahili
^The party included the youngErnest Bennett. See Mabel Bent,Southern Arabia, London, 1900, pp.343-390;The Travel Chronicles of Mrs J Theodore Bent, vol. 3, Oxford, 2010, pp. 286–308.
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1 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequentinvasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.
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