| Sobekneferu | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Neferusobek Scemiophris fromGreek:Σκεμίοφρις | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.jpg) Statue of Sobekneferu which was lost duringWorld War II | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pharaoh | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days according to theTurin Canon in the mid-18th century BC[1][2][a] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Amenemhat IV | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Sobekhotep I orWegaf | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Consort | Amenemhat IV? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Father | Amenemhat III | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Burial | Northern Mazghuna pyramid? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dynasty | Twelfth Dynasty | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sobekneferu orNeferusobek (Ancient Egyptian:Sbk-nfrw meaning 'Beauty of Sobek') was the first confirmedqueen regnant (or 'female king') ofancient Egypt and the last pharaoh of theTwelfth Dynasty of theMiddle Kingdom. She ascended to the throne following the death ofAmenemhat IV, possibly her brother or husband, though their relationship is unproven. Instead, she asserted legitimacy through her fatherAmenemhat III. Her reign lasted 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days, according to theTurin King List.
Distinguishing herself from prior female rulers, Sobekneferu adopted the fullroyal titulary. She was also the first ruler to associate herself with the crocodile godSobek through her name. Contemporary evidence for her reign is scant. There are a few partial statues – one with her face – and inscriptions that have been uncovered. It is assumed that theNorthern Mazghuna pyramid was intended for her, though this assignment is speculative with no firm evidence to confirm it. The monument was abandoned immediately after its substructure was completed. Apapyrus discovered inHarageh mentions a place calledSekhem Sobekneferu that may refer to the pyramid. Her rule is attested on several king lists.
Sobekneferu is thought to be the daughter of PharaohAmenemhat III,[5][18] but her mother's identity is unknown.[19] Amenemhat III had two known wives,Aat and an unnamed queen, both buried in hispyramid at Dahshur. He had at least one other daughter,Neferuptah, who had a burial at hissecond pyramid at Hawara that was eventually moved toher own pyramid.[20] Neferuptah appears to have been groomed as Amenemhat III's heir as she had her name enclosed in a cartouche.[21] Evidence of burials of three other princesses –Hathorhotep,Nubhotepet, and Sithathor – were found at the Dahshur complex, but it is not clear whether these princesses were his daughters as the complex was used for royal burials throughout theThirteenth Dynasty.[22]
Amenemhat III's eventual heir, Amenemhat IV, is attested to be the son ofHetepti, though her titulary lacks reference to her being a 'King's Wife'.[23] The relationship between Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu remains unclear. According to the ancient historianManetho inAegyptiaca they were brother and sister.[5] According to Gae Callender they were also probably married.[24] Although, neither the title of 'King's Wife' nor 'King's Sister' are attested for Sobekneferu.[19] Sobekneferu's accession may have been motivated by the lack of a male heir for Amenemhat IV.[5] However, two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty,Sobekhotep I andSonbef, have been speculated to be sons of his based on their shared nomen 'Amenemhat'.[25] If this is the case, Sobekneferu may have taken the throne after Amenemhat IV's death, because she viewed those potential offspring of late king as illegitimate.[26]
Sobekneferu was the first confirmed woman to rule Egypt in her own right as 'female king' and the first to adopt thefull royal titulary.[27][28] She was also the first ruler associated with the crocodile godSobek by name, whose identity appears in both her birth and throne names.[29]Kara Cooney views ancient Egypt as unique in allowing women to acquire formal – and absolute – power. She posits that women were elevated to the throne during crises to guide the civilization and maintain social order. Though, she also notes that, this elevation to power was illusory. Women acquired the throne as temporary replacements for a male leader; their reigns were regularly targeted for erasure by their successors; and overall, Egyptian society was oppressive to women.[30]
In ancient Egyptian historiography, there is some evidence for other female rulers. As early as theFirst Dynasty,Merneith is proposed to have ruled as regent for her son.[31] In theFifth Dynasty,Setibhor may have been a female king regnant based on the manner her monuments were targeted for destruction.[32] Another candidate,Nitocris, is generally considered to have ruled in theSixth Dynasty,[33] though there is little proof of her historicity[32][34] and she is not mentioned before the Eighteenth Dynasty.[33] The kingship of Nitocris may instead be a Greek legend[34] and the name may originate from an incorrect translation ofNeitiqerty Siptah.[35]
TheMiddle Kingdom was in decline by the time of Sobekneferu's accession.[36] The peak of the Middle Kingdom is attributed toSenusret III and Amenemhat III.[37][38] Senusret III formed the basis for the legendary characterSesostris described by Manetho andHerodotus.[39][40] He led military expeditions intoNubia and into Syria-Palestine[41][42] and built a 60-metre-tall (200 ft) mudbrick pyramid as his monument.[43] He reigned for 39 years, as evidenced by an inscription inAbydos, where he was buried.[44] Amenemhat III, in contrast, presided over a peaceful Egypt that consisted of monumental constructions, the development ofFaiyum, numerous mining expeditions, and the building of two pyramidsat Dahshur andat Hawara.[45][46] His reign lasted at least 45 years, probably longer.[24]Nicolas Grimal notes that such long reigns contributed to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, but without the collapse that ended theOld Kingdom.[36] Amenemhat IV ruled for nine or ten years.[47] There is little information regarding his reign.[24]
It is to this backdrop that Sobekneferu acquired the throne.[36] She reigned for around four years, but as with her predecessor, there are few surviving records.[48] Her death brought a close to the Twelfth Dynasty[49][50] and began theSecond Intermediate Period spanning the following two centuries.[51]
This period is poorly understood owing to the paucity of references to the rulers of the time.[52] She was succeeded by eitherSobekhotep I[53] orWegaf,[54] who inaugurated theThirteenth Dynasty.[36] Stephen Quirke proposed, based on the numerosity of kingships and brevity of their rule, that a rotating succession of kings from Egypt's most powerful families took the throne.[48][55] They retained Itj-tawy as their capital through the Thirteenth Dynasty.[56][57] Their role, however, was relegated to a reduced status and power rested within the administration.[55][57] It is generally accepted that Egypt remained unified until late into the dynasty.[56] Kim Ryholt contends that theFourteenth Dynasty instead arose in the Nile Delta at the end of Sobekneferu's reign as a rival to the Thirteenth.[58] Thomas Schneider argues that the evidence for this hypothesis is weak.[59]
Only a small collection of sources attest to Sobekneferu's rule as pharaoh of Egypt.[48]
In Nubia, agraffito in the fortress ofKumma records the height of the Nile inundation at 1.83 m (6 ft) during her third regnal year.[47][48] Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of theSeason of the Emergence".[60]
TheBritish Museum has a fine cylinder seal (EA16581) bearing her name androyal titulary in its collection.[48][61] The seal is made of glazedsteatite and is 4.42 cm (1.74 in) long with a diameter of 1.55 cm (0.61 in).[62] The British Museum also possesses an inscribed scarab (EA66159), measuring 2.03 cm (0.80 in) by 1.32 cm (0.52 in) and 0.86 cm (0.34 in) in height, made of glazed steatite bearing the name of Sobekneferu.[63]
.jpg)
A handful of headless statues of Sobekneferu have been identified.[5][48][65] In one quartzite image, she blends feminine and masculine dress with an inscription reading 'daughter ofRe(?), of his body, Sobekneferu, may she live like Re forever'.[48][65] On her torso rests a pendant modelled on that worn bySenusret III.[65] Three basalt statues of the female king were found inTell ed-Dab'a;[66] two depict her in a seated posture, another shows her kneeling.[67][68] In one, she is depicted trampling theNine Bows, representing the subjugation of Egypt's enemies.[5] The three statues appear to be life-sized.[68]One statue with her head is known. The bust was held in theEgyptian Museum of Berlin but was lost duringWorld War II. Its existence is confirmed by photographic images and plaster casts. It fits on top of the lower part of a seated statuette discovered atSemna which bears the royal symbolsmꜣ tꜣwy on the side of the throne.[69] The lower half is held at theMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston.[70][71]
There is evidence that she had structures built inHeracleopolis Magna and added to the Pyramid of Amenemhat III in Hawara.[48] She left inscriptions on four granitepapyriform columns found at a temple in Kom el-Akârib, while a further ten granite beams there may date to the same period.[72] Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps only a stepsister to Amenemhat IV, whose mother was not royal. Contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu adopted only the 'King's Daughter' title, which further supports this hypothesis.[73] An example of such an inscription comes from a limestone block of 'the Labyrinth' of the Pyramid at Hawara. It reads 'Beloved ofDḥdḥt the good godNỉ-mꜣꜥt-rꜥ [Amenemhat III] given [...] * Daughter of Re, Sobekneferu lord of Shedet, given all life'. The inscription is also the only known reference to a goddessDḥdḥt.[74][75] By contrast, Amenemhat IV's name does not appear at Hawara.[76]
In Israel, a possible reference to Sobekneferu before she became a ruler is found on the base of a statue discovered inGezer. This statue bears her name and is identified as a representation of a "king's daughter". However, it may also refer to a daughter of Senusret I or another unknown Sobekneferu.[73][77] A damaged statuette (MET 65.59.1) in theMetropolitan Museum of Art in New York has been suggested to represent Sobekneferu, though this assignment is unverified.[70] The schist bust depicts a woman in a wig, wearing a crown composed of a uraeus cobra and two vultures with outstretched wings which is of unknown iconography, and theḥb-sd cloak.[48][78] A headless black basalt or granite sphinx discovered byÉdouard Naville inQantir bearing a damaged inscription is also assigned to Sobekneferu.[79][80]
In the Thutmosid period, she is mentioned on theKarnak list of early Egyptian kings.[81] In the Ramesside period, she is mentioned in theSaqqara Tablet,[82] andTurin King List,[48] but is conspicuously excluded from theAbydos King List.[83] Her exclusion, along with all other female kings, pharaohs of theFirst andSecond Intermediate Periods, and of theAmarna Period, is an indicator of whomRamesses II andSeti I viewed as the legitimate rulers of Egypt.[83] She is credited in the Turin Canon with a reign of 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days.[47][84][85] In the Hellenistic period, she is mentioned by Manetho as 'Scemiophris' (Σκεμιoφρις), where she is credited with a reign of four years.[86]
Sobekneferu's tomb has not yet been positively identified. A place calledSekhem Sobekneferu is mentioned on a papyrus found atHarageh which may be the name of her pyramid.[87][88] On a funerary stela from Abydos, now in Marseille, there is mention of a storeroom administrator of Sobekneferu named Heby. The stela dates to the 13th Dynasty and attests to an ongoing funerary cult.[89][90]
TheNorthern Mazghuna pyramid is assumed to be her monument. There is, however, no clear evidence to confirm this assignment[91][92] and the pyramid may date to a period well after the end of the Twelfth Dynasty.[93] Only its substructure was completed; construction of the superstructure and wider temple complex was never begun. The passages of the substructure had a complex plan. A stairway descended south from the east side of the pyramid leading to a square chamber which connected to the next sloping passage leading west to a portcullis. Theportcullis consisted of a 42,000-kilogram (93,000 lb) quartzite block intended to slide into and block the passage. Beyond the passage wound through several more turns and a second smaller portcullis before terminating at the antechamber. South of this lay the burial chamber which was almost entirely occupied by a quartzite monolith which acted as the vessel for a sarcophagus. In a deep recess lay a quartzite lid which was to be slid into place over the coffin and then locked into place by a stone slab blocking it. The builders had all exposed surfaces painted red and added lines of black paint. A causeway leading to the pyramid was built of mudbrick, which must have been used by the workers. Though the burial place had been constructed, no burial was interred at the site.[92][93]
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
