Approximate world distribution of snakes, all species
Snakes are elongatedlimblessreptiles of thesuborderSerpentes (/sɜːrˈpɛntiːz/).[2] Cladisticallysquamates, snakes areectothermic,amniotevertebrates covered in overlappingscales much like other members of the group. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joints than theirlizard ancestors and relatives, enabling them to swallow prey much larger than their heads (cranial kinesis). To accommodate their narrow bodies, snakes' paired organs (such as kidneys) appear one in front of the other instead of side by side, and most only have one functionallung. Some species retain apelvic girdle with a pair ofvestigial claws on either side of thecloaca. Lizards have independently evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs at least twenty-five times viaconvergent evolution, leading to many lineages oflegless lizards.[3] These resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal (seeAmphisbaenia,Dibamidae, andPygopodidae).
Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses; exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, and the islands of New Zealand, as well as many small islands of the Atlantic and central Pacific oceans.[4] Additionally,sea snakes are widespread throughout the Indian and Pacific oceans. Around thirtyfamilies are currently recognized, comprising about 520genera and about more than 4,170species.[5] They range in size from the tiny, 10.4 cm-long (4.1 in)Barbados threadsnake[6] to thereticulated python of 6.95 meters (22.8 ft) in length.[7] The fossil speciesTitanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 meters (42 ft) long.[8] Snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards, perhaps during theJurassic period, with the earliest known fossils dating to between 143 and 167 Ma ago.[9][10] The diversity of modern snakes appeared during thePaleocene epoch (c. 66 to 56 Ma ago, after theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). The oldest preserved descriptions of snakes can be found in theBrooklyn Papyrus.
Most species of snake are nonvenomous andthose that have venom use it primarily to kill and subdue prey rather than for self-defense. Some possess venom that is potent enough to cause painful injury or death to humans. Nonvenomous snakes either swallow prey alive or kill byconstriction.
Etymology
The English wordsnake comes fromOld Englishsnaca, itself fromProto-Germanic*snak-an- (cf.GermanicSchnake 'ring snake', Swedishsnok 'grass snake'), fromProto-Indo-European root*(s)nēg-o- 'to crawl to creep', which also gavesneak as well asSanskritnāgá 'snake'.[11] The word oustedadder, asadder went on to narrow in meaning, though in Old Englishnæddre was the general word for snake.[12] The other term,serpent, is from French, ultimately from Indo-European*serp- 'to creep',[13] which also gaveAncient Greekἕρπω (hérpō) 'I crawl' and Sanskritsarpá ‘snake’.[14]
All modern snakes are grouped within thesuborderSerpentes inLinnean taxonomy, part of theorderSquamata, though their precise placement within squamates remains controversial.[15]
Western India and Sri Lanka through tropical Southeast Asia to the Philippines, south through the Indonesian/Malaysian island group to Timor, east through New Guinea to the northern coast of Australia toMussau Island, theBismarck Archipelago andGuadalcanal Island in the Solomon Islands.
Northern, Central and South America, the Caribbean, southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, Northern, Central and East Africa, Madagascar andReunion Island, the Arabian Peninsula, Central and southwestern Asia, India and Sri Lanka, theMoluccas and New Guinea through to Melanesia and Samoa.
Sri Lanka east through Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Malay Archipelago to as far east asAru Islands off the southwestern coast of New Guinea. Also found in southern China (Fujian, Hong Kong and on Hainan Island) and in Laos.
Southeast Asia from theAndaman andNicobar Islands, east through Myanmar to southern China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Malay Peninsula and the East Indies toSulawesi, as well as the Philippines.
Africa, western Asia from Turkey to northwestern India, onSocotra Island, from the southwestern United States south through Mexico and Central to South America, though not in the highAndes. In Pacific South America they occur as far south as southern coastal Peru, and on the Atlantic side as far as Uruguay and Argentina. In the Caribbean they are found on the Bahamas,Hispaniola and theLesser Antilles.
Most tropical and many subtropical regions around the world, particularly in Africa, Madagascar, Asia, islands in the Pacific, tropical America and in southeastern Europe.
While snakes are limbless reptiles, evolved from (and grouped with) lizards, there are many other species of lizards that have lost their limbs independently but which superficially look similar to snakes. These include theslowworm,glass snake, andamphisbaenians.[22]
Evolution
Unsolved problem in biology:
Did snakes evolve from burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards?
A family level phylogenetic overview of modern snakes.
Note: the tree only indicates relationships, not evolutionary branching times. This is not a definitive tree. It is the best that could be done as of 2024. See original paper for a discussion of difficulties.[23]
The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snakeskeletons are typically small and fragile makingfossilization uncommon. Fossils readily identifiable as snakes (though often retaining hind limbs) first appear in the fossil record during theCretaceous period.[24] The earliest known true snake fossils (members of the crown group Serpentes) come from the marinesimoliophiids, the oldest of which is theLate Cretaceous (Cenomanian age)Haasiophis terrasanctus from theWest Bank,[1] dated to between 112 and 94 million years old.[25]
Based on genomic analysis it is certain that snakes descend fromlizards.[23] This conclusion is also supported bycomparative anatomy, and the fossil record.[26]: 11 [27][23]
Pythons andboas—primitive groups among modern snakes—have vestigial hind limbs: tiny, clawed digits known asanal spurs, which are used to grasp during mating.[26]: 11 [28] The familiesLeptotyphlopidae andTyphlopidae also possess remnants of the pelvic girdle, appearing as horny projections when visible.
Front limbs are nonexistent in all known snakes. This is caused by the evolution of theirHox genes, controlling limbmorphogenesis. The axial skeleton of the snakes' common ancestor, like most other tetrapods, had regional specializations consisting of cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail) vertebrae. Early in snake evolution, the Hox gene expression in the axial skeleton responsible for the development of the thorax became dominant. As a result, the vertebrae anterior to the hindlimb buds (when present) all have the same thoracic-like identity (except from theatlas,axis, and 1–3 neck vertebrae). In other words, most of a snake's skeleton is an extremely extended thorax. Ribs are found exclusively on the thoracic vertebrae. Neck, lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are very reduced in number (only 2–10 lumbar and pelvic vertebrae are present), while only a short tail remains of the caudal vertebrae. However, the tail is still long enough to be of important use in many species, and is modified in some aquatic and tree-dwelling species.[citation needed]
Many modern snake groups originated during thePaleocene, alongside theadaptive radiation of mammals following the extinction of (non-avian)dinosaurs. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes.[29] Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances ofvipers andelapids in North America and the significant diversification ofColubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such asNerodia,Lampropeltis,Pituophis, andPantherophis).[29]
Fossils
There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards during theCretaceous Period.[30][31] An early fossil snake relative,Najash rionegrina, was a two-legged burrowing animal with asacrum, and was fullyterrestrial.[32]Najash, which lived 95 million years ago, also had a skull with several features typical for lizards, but had evolved some of the mobile skull joints that define the flexible skull in most modern snakes. The species did not show any resemblances to the modern burrowing blind snakes, which have often been seen as the most primitive group of extant forms.[33] Oneextant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitorLanthanotus ofBorneo (though it is alsosemiaquatic).[34]Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs.[34] According to this hypothesis, features such as thetransparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope withfossorial difficulties, such as scratchedcorneas and dirt in the ears.[31][34] Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species likeHaasiophis,Pachyrhachis andEupodophis, which are slightly older thanNajash.[28]
This hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113-million-year-old fossil of a four-legged snake in Brazil that has been namedTetrapodophis amplectus. It has many snake-like features, is adapted for burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.[35] It is currently uncertain ifTetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in thesquamate order, as a snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26 times.Tetrapodophis does not have distinctive snake features in its spine and skull.[36][37] A study in 2021 places the animal in a group of extinct marine lizards from the Cretaceous period known asdolichosaurs and not directly related to snakes.[38]
An alternative hypothesis, based onmorphology, suggests the ancestors of snakes were related tomosasaurs—extinctaquatic reptiles from theCretaceous—forming the cladePythonomorpha.[27] According to this hypothesis, the fused, transparent eyelids of snakes are thought to have evolved to combat marine conditions (corneal water loss through osmosis), and the external ears were lost through disuse in an aquatic environment. This ultimately led to an animal similar to today'ssea snakes. In the LateCretaceous, snakes recolonized land, and continued to diversify into today's snakes. Fossilized snake remains are known from early Late Cretaceous marine sediments, which is consistent with this hypothesis; particularly so, as they are older than the terrestrialNajash rionegrina. Similar skull structure, reduced or absent limbs, and other anatomical features found in both mosasaurs and snakes lead to a positivecladistical correlation, although some of these features are shared with varanids.[citation needed]
Genetic studies in recent years have indicated snakes are not as closely related to monitor lizards as was once believed—and therefore not to mosasaurs, the proposed ancestor in the aquatic scenario of their evolution. However, more evidence links mosasaurs to snakes than to varanids. Fragmented remains found from theJurassic and Early Cretaceous indicate deeper fossil records for these groups, which may potentially refute either hypothesis.[39][40]
Both fossils andphylogenetic studies demonstrate that snakes evolved fromlizards, hence the question became which genetic changes led to limb loss in the snake ancestor. Limb loss is actually very common in extant reptiles and has happened dozens of times withinskinks,anguids, and other lizards.[41]
In 2016, two studies reported that limb loss in snakes is associated with DNA mutations in the Zone of Polarizing Activity Regulatory Sequence (ZRS), a regulatory region of thesonic hedgehog gene which is critically required for limb development. More advanced snakes have no remnants of limbs, but basal snakes such as pythons and boas do have traces of highly reduced, vestigial hind limbs. Python embryos even have fully developed hind limb buds, but their later development is stopped by the DNA mutations in the ZRS.[42][43][44][45]
Distribution
Approximate world distribution of snakes
There are about 3,900 species of snakes,[46] ranging as far northward as the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and southward through Australia.[27] Snakes can be found on every continent except Antarctica, as well as in the sea, and as high as 16,000 feet (4,900 m) in theHimalayan Mountains of Asia.[27][47]: 143 There are numerous islands from which snakes are absent, such asIreland,Iceland, andNew Zealand[4][47] (although New Zealand's northern waters are infrequently visited by theyellow-bellied sea snake and thebanded sea krait).[48]
The nowextinctTitanoboa cerrejonensis was 12.8 m (42 ft) in length.[8] By comparison, the largestextant snakes are thereticulated python, measuring about 6.95 m (22.8 ft) long,[7] and thegreen anaconda, which measures about 5.21 m (17.1 ft) long and is considered the heaviest snake on Earth at 97.5 kg (215 lb).[49]
At the other end of the scale, the smallest extant snake isLeptotyphlops carlae, with a length of about 10.4 cm (4.1 in).[6] Most snakes are fairly small animals, approximately 1 m (3.3 ft) in length.[50]
Perception
The sensory systems of snakes, particularly those of the Crotalidae family, commonly known as pit vipers, are among the most specialized in the animal kingdom. Pit vipers, which include rattlesnakes and related species, possess all the sensory organs found in other snakes, as well as additional adaptations. These include specializedinfrared-sensitive receptors, known as pits, located on either side of the head between the nostrils and eyes. These pits, which resemble an additional pair of nostrils, are highly developed and allow pit vipers to detect minute temperature changes. Each pit consists of two cavities: a larger outer cavity positioned just behind and below the nostril, and a smaller inner cavity. These cavities are connected internally by a membrane containing nerves highly sensitive to thermal variations. The forward-facing pits create a combined field of detection, enabling pit vipers to distinguish objects from their surroundings and accurately judge distances. The sensitivity of these pits allows them to detect temperature differences as small as one-third of a degree Fahrenheit. Other infrared-sensitive snakes, such as those in the Boidae family, possess multiple smaller labial pits along the upper lip, just below the nostrils.[51]
Snakes rely heavily on their sense of smell to track prey. They collect particles from the air, ground, or water using theirforked tongue, which are then transferred to thevomeronasal organ (also known as Jacobson's organ) in the mouth for analysis.[51] The forked structure of the tongue provides directional information of smell which helps locate prey or predators. In aquatic species, such as theanaconda, the tongue functions efficiently underwater.[51] When the tongue is retracted, the forked tips are pressed into the cavities of the Jacobson's organ, enabling a combined taste-smell analysis that provides the snake with detailed information about its environment.[52][page needed][51]
Until the mid-20th century, it was widely believed that snakes were unable to hear.[53][54] However, snakes possess two distinct auditory systems. One system, the somatic system, involves the transmission of vibrations through ventral skin receptors to the spine. The other system involves vibrations transmitted through the snake's elongated lung to the brain via cranial nerves. Snakes exhibit high sensitivity to vibrations, allowing them to detect even subtle sounds, such as soft speech, in quiet environments.[53][51][54]
Snake vision varies significantly among species. While some snakes have keen eyesight, others can only distinguish light from dark. However, most snakes possess visual acuity sufficient to track movement.[55] Arboreal snakes generally have better vision than burrowing species. Some snakes, such as theAsian vine snake, possessbinocular vision, enabling both eyes to focus on the same point. Most snakes focus by moving thelens back and forth relative to theretina. Diurnal snakes typically have round pupils, while many nocturnal species have slit pupils. Most snakes possess three visual pigments, allowing them to perceive two primary colors in daylight. Certain species, such as theannulated sea snake and members of the genusHelicops, have regained significant color vision as an adaptation to their aquatic environments.[56][57] Research suggests that the last common ancestor of all snakes hadUV-sensitive vision. However, many diurnal snakes have evolved lenses that filter out UV light, likely improvingcontrast and sharpening their vision.[58][59]
The skin of a snake is covered inscales. Contrary to the popular notion of snakes being slimy (because of possible confusion of snakes withworms),snakeskin has a smooth, dry texture. Most snakes use specialized belly scales to travel, allowing them to grip surfaces. The body scales may be smooth,keeled, or granular. The eyelids of a snake are transparent "spectacle" scales, also known asbrille, which remain permanently closed.[citation needed]
For a snake, the skin has been modified to its specialized form of locomotion. Between the inner layer and the outer layer lies the dermis, which contains all the pigments and cells that make up the snake's distinguishing pattern and color. The epidermis, or outer layer, is formed of a substance calledkeratin, which in mammals is the same basic material that forms nails, claws, and hair. The snake's epidermis of keratin provides it with the armor it needs to protect its internal organs and reduce friction as it passes over rocks. Parts of this keratin armor are rougher than others. The less restricted portion overlaps the front of the scale beneath it. Between them lies a folded back connecting material, also of keratin, also part of the epidermis. This folded back material gives as the snake undulates or eats things bigger than the circumference of its body.[52][page needed]
The shedding of scales is calledecdysis (or in normal usage,molting orsloughing). Snakes shed the complete outer layer of skin in one piece.[60] Snake scales are not discrete, but extensions of theepidermis—hence they are not shed separately but as a complete outer layer during each molt, akin to a sock being turned inside out.[61]
Snakes have a wide diversity of skin coloration patterns which are often related to behavior, such as the tendency to have to flee from predators. Snakes that are at a high risk of predation tend to be plain, or have longitudinal stripes, providing few reference points to predators, thus allowing the snake to escape without being noticed. Plain snakes usually adopt active hunting strategies, as their pattern allows them to send little information to prey about motion. Blotched snakes usually use ambush-based strategies, likely because it helps them blend into an environment with irregularly shaped objects, like sticks or rocks. Spotted patterning can similarly help snakes to blend into their environment.[62]
The shape and number of scales on the head, back, and belly are often characteristic and used for taxonomic purposes. Scales are named mainly according to their positions on the body. In "advanced" (Caenophidian) snakes, the broad belly scales and rows ofdorsal scales correspond to thevertebrae, allowing these to be counted without the need fordissection.[citation needed]
Molting (or "ecdysis") serves a number of purposes - it allows old, worn skin to be replaced and can be synced to mating cycles, as with other animals. Molting occurs periodically throughout the life of a snake. Before each molt, the snake regulates its diet and seeks defensible shelter. Just before shedding, the skin becomes grey and the snake's eyes turn silvery. The inner surface of the old skin liquefies, causing it to separate from the new skin beneath it. After a few days, the eyes clear and the snake reaches out of its old skin, which splits. The snake rubs its body against rough surfaces to aid in the shedding of its old skin. In many cases, the castaway skin peels backward over the body from head to tail in one piece, like taking the dust jacket off a book, revealing a new, larger, brighter layer of skin which has formed underneath.[61][63] Renewal of the skin by molting supposedly increases the mass of some animals such as insects, but in the case of snakes this has been disputed.[61][64] Shedding skin can release pheromones and revitalize color and patterns of the skin to increase attraction of mates.[65]
Snakes may shed four of five times a year, depending on the weather conditions, food supply, age of the snake, and other factors.[52][page needed][63] It is theoretically possible to identify the snake from its cast skin if it is reasonably intact.[61] Mythological associations of snakes with symbols ofhealing andmedicine, as pictured in theRod of Asclepius, are derivative of molting.[66]
One can attempt to identify the sex of a snake when the species is not distinctlysexually dimorphic by counting scales. Thecloaca is probed and measured against thesubcaudal scales.[67] Counting scales determines whether a snake is a male or female, as thehemipenes of a male being probed is usually longer.[67][clarification needed]
The skull of a snake differs from a lizards in several ways. Snakes have more flexible jaws, that is, instead of a juncture at the upper and lower jaw, the snake's jaws are connected by a bone hinge that is called thequadrate bone. Between the two halves of the lower jaw at the chin there is an elastic ligament that allows for a separation. This allows the snake to swallow food larger in proportion to their size and go longer without it, since snakes ingest relatively more in one feeding.[68] Because the sides of the lower jaw can move independently of one another, a snake resting its jaw on a surface has stereoauditory perception, used for detecting the position of prey. The jaw–quadrate–stapes pathway is capable of detecting vibrations on theangstrom scale, despite the absence of an outer ear and the lack of animpedance matching mechanism—provided by theossicles in other vertebrates.[69][70] In a snake's skull the brain is well protected. As brain tissues could be damaged through the palate, this protection is especially valuable. The solid and completeneurocranium of snakes is closed at the front.[52][page needed][71]
The skeletons of snakes are radically different from those of most other reptiles (as compared with theturtle here, for example), consisting almost entirely of an extended ribcage.
The skeleton of most snakes consists solely of the skull,hyoid, vertebral column, and ribs, thoughhenophidian snakes retain vestiges of the pelvis and rear limbs. The hyoid is a small bone located posterior and ventral to the skull, in the 'neck' region, which serves as an attachment for the muscles of the snake's tongue, as it does in all othertetrapods. The vertebral column consists of between 200 and 400 vertebrae, or sometimes more. The body vertebrae each have two ribs articulating with them. The tail vertebrae are comparatively few in number (often less than 20% of the total) and lack ribs. The vertebrae have projections that allow for strong muscle attachment, enabling locomotion without limbs.[citation needed]
Caudalautotomy (self-amputation of the tail), a feature found in some lizards, is absent in most snakes.[72] In the rare cases where it does exist in snakes, caudal autotomy is intervertebral (meaning the separation of adjacent vertebrae), unlike that in lizards, which is intravertebral, i.e. the break happens along a predefined fracture plane present on a vertebra.[73][74]
In some snakes, most notably boas and pythons, there are vestiges of the hindlimbs in the form of a pair ofpelvic spurs. These small, claw-like protrusions on each side of the cloaca are the external portion of the vestigial hindlimb skeleton, which includes the remains of an ilium and femur.[citation needed]
Snakes arepolyphyodonts with teeth that are continuously replaced.[75]
Snakes and other non-archosaur (crocodilians,dinosaurs +birds and allies) reptiles have a three-chambered heart that controls thecirculatory system via the left and right atrium, and one ventricle.[76] Internally, the ventricle is divided into three interconnected cavities: the cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, and the cavum venosum.[77] The cavum venosum receives deoxygenatedblood from the right atrium and the cavum arteriosum receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium. Located beneath the cavum venosum is the cavum pulmonale, which pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk.[78]
The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called thepericardium, located at thebifurcation of thebronchi. The heart is able to move around, owing to the lack of a diaphragm; this adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through theesophagus. Thespleen is attached to thegall bladder andpancreas and filters the blood. Thethymus, located in fatty tissue above the heart, is responsible for the generation of immune cells in the blood. The cardiovascular system of snakes is unique for the presence of a renal portal system in which the blood from the snake's tail passes through the kidneys before returning to the heart.[79]
The circulatory system of a snake is basically like those of any other vertebrae. However, snakes do not regulate internally the temperature of their blood. Called cold-blooded, snakes actually have blood that is responsive to the varying temperature of the immediate environment. Snakes can regulate blood temperature by moving. Too long in direct sunlight, the snakes' blood is heated by beyond tolerance. Left in the ice or snow, the snake may freeze. In temperate zones with pronounced seasonal changes, snakes denning together have adapted to the onslaught of winter.[52][page needed]
Thevestigial leftlung is often small or sometimes even absent, as snakes' tubular bodies require all of their organs to be long and thin.[79] In the majority of species, only one lung is functional. This lung contains a vascularized anterior portion and a posterior portion that does not function in gas exchange.[79] This 'saccular lung' is used forhydrostatic purposes to adjust buoyancy in some aquatic snakes and its function remains unknown in terrestrial species.[79] Many organs that are paired, such askidneys orreproductive organs, are staggered within the body, one located ahead of the other.[79]
The snake with its particular arrangement of organs may achieve a greater efficiency.[compared to?] For example, the lung encloses at the part nearest the head and throat an oxygen intake organ, while the other half is used for air reserve. The esophagus-stomach-intestine arrangement is a straight line. It ends where intestinal, urinary, and reproductive tracts open, in a chamber called the cloaca.[52][page needed]
Cobras, vipers, and closely related species usevenom to immobilize, injure, or kill their prey. The venom is modifiedsaliva, delivered throughfangs.[26][80]: 243 The fangs of 'advanced' venomous snakes like viperids and elapids are hollow, allowing venom to be injected more effectively, and the fangs ofrear-fanged snakes such as the boomslang simply have a groove on the posterior edge to channel venom into the wound. Snake venoms are often prey-specific, and their role in self-defense is secondary.[26][80]: 243
Venom, like all salivary secretions, is a predigestant that initiates the breakdown of food into soluble compounds, facilitating proper digestion. Even nonvenomous snakebites (like any animal bite) cause tissue damage.[26][80]: 209
Certain birds, mammals, and other snakes (such askingsnakes) that prey on venomous snakes have developed resistance and even immunity to certain venoms.[26]: 243 Venomous snakes include threefamilies of snakes, and do not constitute a formaltaxonomic classification group.[citation needed]
Thecolloquial term "poisonous snake" is generally an incorrect label for snakes. A poison is inhaled or ingested, whereas venom produced by snakes is injected into its victim via fangs.[81] There are, however, two exceptions:Rhabdophis sequesters toxins from the toads it eats, then secretes them from nuchal glands to ward off predators; and a small unusual population ofgarter snakes in the US state ofOregon retains enough toxins in their livers from ingestednewts to be effectively poisonous to small local predators (such ascrows andfoxes).[82]
Snake venoms are complex mixtures ofproteins,[80] and are stored invenom glands at the back of the head.[82] In all venomous snakes, these glands open through ducts into grooved or hollow teeth in the upper jaw.[26]: 243 [81] The proteins can potentially be a mix ofneurotoxins (which attack the nervous system),hemotoxins (which attack the circulatory system),cytotoxins (which attack the cells directly),bungarotoxins (related to neurotoxins, but also directly affect muscle tissue), and many other toxins that affect the body in different ways.[81][80] Almost all snake venom containshyaluronidase, an enzyme that ensures rapid diffusion of the venom.[26]: 243
Venomous snakes that use hemotoxins usually have fangs in the front of their mouths, making it easier for them to inject the venom into their victims.[80][81] Some snakes that use neurotoxins (such as themangrove snake) have fangs in the back of their mouths, with the fangs curled backwards.[83] This makes it difficult both for the snake to use its venom and for scientists to milk them.[81] Elapids, however, such as cobras and kraits areproteroglyphous—they possess hollow fangs that cannot be erected toward the front of their mouths, and cannot "stab" like a viper. They must actually bite the victim.[26]: 242
It has been suggested that all snakes may be venomous to a certain degree, with harmless snakes having weak venom and no fangs.[84] According to this theory, most snakes that are labelled "nonvenomous" would be considered harmless because they either lack a venom delivery method or are incapable of delivering enough to endanger a human. The theory postulates that snakes may have evolved from a common lizard ancestor that was venomous, and also that venomous lizards like thegila monster,beaded lizard,monitor lizards, and the now-extinctmosasaurs, may have derived from this same common ancestor. They share this "venom clade" with various othersaurian species.[citation needed]
Venomous snakes are classified in two taxonomic families:
Although a wide range of reproductive modes are used by snakes, all employinternal fertilization. This is accomplished by means of paired, forkedhemipenes, which are stored, inverted, in the male's tail.[85] The hemipenes are often grooved, hooked, or spined—designed to grip the walls of the female'scloaca.[86][85] Theclitoris of the female snake consists of two structures located between the cloaca and the scent glands.[87]
Most species of snakes layeggs which they abandon shortly after laying. However, a few species (such as the king cobra) construct nests and stay in the vicinity of the hatchlings after incubation.[85] Most pythons coil around their egg-clutches and remain with them until they hatch.[88] A female python will not leave the eggs, except to occasionally bask in the sun or drink water. She will even "shiver" to generate heat to incubate the eggs.[88]
Some species of snake areovoviviparous and retain the eggs within their bodies until they are almost ready to hatch.[89][90] Several species of snake, such as theboa constrictor and green anaconda, are fullyviviparous, nourishing their young through aplacenta as well as ayolk sac; this is highly unusual among reptiles, and normally found inrequiem sharks orplacental mammals.[89][90] Retention of eggs and live birth are most often associated with colder environments.[85][90]
Thegarter snake has been studied for sexual selection.
Sexual selection in snakes is demonstrated by the 3,000 species that each use different tactics in acquiring mates.[91] Ritual combat between males for the females they want tomate with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by most viperids in which one male will twist around the vertically elevated fore body of its opponent and force it downward. It is common for neck-biting to occur while the snakes are entwined.[92]
Facultative parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead) andAgkistrodon piscivorus (cottonmouth) can reproduce byfacultative parthenogenesis, meaning that they are capable of switching from asexual mode of reproduction to anasexual mode.[93] The most likely type of parthenogenesis to occur isautomixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two terminal products from the samemeiosis fuse to form a diploidzygote. This process leads to genome-widehomozygosity, expression of deleterious recessivealleles, and often to developmental abnormalities. Both captive-born and wild-born copperheads and cottonmouths appear to be capable of this form of parthenogenesis.[93]
Reproduction insquamate reptiles is almost exclusively sexual. Males ordinarily have a ZZ pair of sex-determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, resulting in production of WW female progeny.[94] The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.[citation needed]
Snake embryonic development initially follows similar steps as any vertebrateembryo. The snake embryo begins as azygote, undergoes rapid cell division, forms agerminal disc, also called a blastodisc, then undergoesgastrulation,neurulation, andorganogenesis.[96] Cell division and proliferation continues until an early snake embryo develops and the typical body shape of a snake can be observed.[96] Multiple features differentiate the embryologic development of snakes from other vertebrates, two significant factors being the elongation of the body and the lack of limb development.[citation needed]
Diagram illustrating differentialsomite size due to difference insomitogenesis clock oscillation[95]
The elongation in snake body is accompanied by a significant increase invertebra count (mice have 60 vertebrae, whereas snakes may have over 300).[95] This increase in vertebrae is due to an increase insomites during embryogenesis, leading to an increased number of vertebrae which develop.[95] Somites are formed at thepresomitic mesoderm due to a set of oscillatory genes that direct thesomitogenesis clock. The snake somitogenesis clock operates at a frequency 4 times that of a mouse (after correction for developmental time), creating more somites, and therefore creating more vertebrae.[95] This difference in clock speed is believed to be caused by differences inLunatic fringe gene expression, a gene involved in the somitogenesis clock.[97]
There is ample literature focusing on the limb development/lack of development in snake embryos and the gene expression associated with the different stages. Inbasal snakes, such as the python, embryos in early development exhibit a hindlimb bud that develops with some cartilage and a cartilaginous pelvic element, however this degenerates before hatching.[98] This presence of vestigial development suggests that some snakes are still undergoing hind limb reduction before they are eliminated.[99] There is no evidence in basal snakes of forelimb rudiments and no examples of snake forelimb bud initiation in embryo, so little is known regarding the loss of this trait.[99] Recent studies suggest that hind limb reduction could be due to mutations in enhancers for theSSH gene,[99] however other studies suggested that mutations within theHox Genes or their enhancers could contribute to snake limblessness.[95] Since multiple studies have found evidence suggesting different genes played a role in the loss of limbs in snakes, it is likely that multiple gene mutations had an additive effect leading to limb loss in snakes[100]
Behavior and life history
Snake coiled on a stick inOklahoma. It wasbrumating in a large pile of wood chips, found by thislandscaper after he bulldozed the pile in late autumn 2018.
Winter dormancy
A snaked coiled in the cavity of a tree
In regions where winters are too cold for snakes to tolerate while remaining active, local species will enter a period ofbrumation. Unlikehibernation, in which the dormant mammals are actually asleep, brumating reptiles are awake but inactive. Individual snakes may brumate in burrows, under rock piles, or inside fallen trees, or large numbers of snakes may clump together inhibernacula.[citation needed]
All snakes arestrictly carnivorous,preying on small animals including lizards, frogs, other snakes, small mammals, birds, eggs, fish, snails, worms, and insects.[26]: 81 [27][101] Snakes cannot bite or tear their food to pieces so must swallow their prey whole. The eating habits of a snake are largely influenced by body size; smaller snakes eat smaller prey. Juvenile pythons might start out feeding on lizards or mice and graduate to small deer or antelope as an adult, for example.[citation needed]
The snake'sjaw is a complex structure. Contrary to the popular belief that snakes can dislocate their jaws, they have an extremely flexiblelower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in the skull, which allow the snake to open its mouth wide enough to swallow prey whole, even if it is larger in diameter than the snake itself.[101] For example, theAfrican egg-eating snake has flexible jaws adapted for eating eggs much larger than the diameter of its head.[26]: 81 This snake has no teeth, but does have bony protrusions on the inside edge of itsspine, which it uses to break the shell when eating eggs.[26]: 81
The majority of snakes eat a variety of prey animals, but there is some specialization in certain species.King cobras and the Australianbandy-bandy consume other snakes. Species of the familyPareidae have more teeth on the right side of their mouths than on the left, as they mostly prey on snails and the shells usually spiral clockwise.[26]: 184 [102][103]
Some snakes have a venomous bite, which they use to kill their prey before eating it.[101][104] Other snakes kill their prey byconstriction,[101] while some swallow their prey when it is still alive.[26]: 81 [101]
After eating, snakes become dormant to allow the process ofdigestion to take place;[67] this is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entireintestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Beingectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays an important role in the digestion process. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest food is 30 °C (86 °F). There is a huge amount ofmetabolic energy involved in a snake's digestion, for example the surface body temperature of the South American rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus) increases by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) during the digestive process.[105] If a snake is disturbed after having eaten recently, it will oftenregurgitate its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient; the snake's digestiveenzymes dissolve and absorb everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along withwaste.[citation needed]
Hooding and spitting
Hooding (expansion of the neck area) is a visual deterrent, mostly seen in cobras (elapids), and is primarily controlled by rib muscles.[106] Hooding can be accompanied by spitting venom towards the threatening object,[107] and producing a specialized sound; hissing. Studies on captive cobras showed that 13–22% of the body length is raised during hooding.[108]
Locomotion
The lack of limbs does not impede the movement of snakes. They have developed several different modes of locomotion to deal with particular environments. Unlike the gaits of limbed animals, which form a continuum, each mode of snake locomotion is discrete and distinct from the others; transitions between modes are abrupt.[109][110]
Lateral undulation is the sole mode of aquatic locomotion, and the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion.[110] In this mode, the body of the snake alternately flexes to the left and right, resulting in a series of rearward-moving "waves".[109] While this movement appears rapid, snakes have rarely been documented moving faster than two body-lengths per second, often much less.[111] This mode of movement has the same net cost of transport (calories burned per meter moved) as running in lizards of the same mass.[112]
Terrestrial lateral undulation is the most common mode of terrestrial locomotion for most snake species.[109] In this mode, the posteriorly moving waves push against contact points in the environment, such as rocks, twigs, irregularities in the soil, etc.[109] Each of these environmental objects, in turn, generates a reaction force directed forward and towards the midline of the snake, resulting in forward thrust while the lateral components cancel out.[113] The speed of this movement depends upon the density of push-points in the environment, with a medium density of about 8[clarification needed] along the snake's length being ideal.[111] The wave speed is precisely the same as the snake speed, and as a result, every point on the snake's body follows the path of the point ahead of it, allowing snakes to move through very dense vegetation and small openings.[113]
When swimming, the waves become larger as they move down the snake's body, and the wave travels backwards faster than the snake moves forwards.[114] Thrust is generated by pushing their body against the water, resulting in the observed slip. In spite of overall similarities, studies show that the pattern of muscle activation is different in aquatic versus terrestrial lateral undulation, which justifies calling them separate modes.[115] All snakes can laterally undulate forward (with backward-moving waves), but only sea snakes have been observed reversing the motion (moving backwards with forward-moving waves).[109]
Most often employed by colubroid snakes (colubrids,elapids, andvipers) when the snake must move in an environment that lacks irregularities to push against (rendering lateral undulation impossible), such as a slick mud flat, or a sand dune, sidewinding is a modified form of lateral undulation in which all of the body segments oriented in one direction remain in contact with the ground, while the other segments are lifted up, resulting in a peculiar "rolling" motion.[116][117] The sidewinder moves forward by throwing a loop of itself and then pulling itself up by it. By lowering its head the snake gets leverage, straightening itself out and pressing itself against the ground, it brings itself forward and at an angle that leaves it ready for the next jump. The head and the loop are in effect the two feet upon which the snake walks. The snake's body, appearing roughly perpendicular to its direction, may bewilder the observer, since preconception may lead one to associate snake movement with a head that leads and a body that follows. It appears the sidewinder is going sideways - but precisely where the snake is going, where it wants to go, the head gives clear indication. The snake leaves behind a trail that looks like a series of hooks one after the next. Snakes can move backwards to retreat from an enemy, though they normally do not.[52][page needed] This mode of locomotion overcomes the slippery nature of sand or mud by pushing off with only static portions on the body, thereby minimizing slipping.[116] The static nature of the contact points can be shown from the tracks of a sidewinding snake, which show each belly scale imprint, without any smearing. This mode of locomotion has very low caloric cost, less than1⁄3 of the cost for a lizard to move the same distance.[112] Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that sidewinding is associated with the sand being hot.[116]
When push-points are absent, but there is not enough space to use sidewinding because of lateral constraints, such as in tunnels, snakes rely on concertina locomotion.[109][117] In this mode, the snake braces the posterior portion of its body against the tunnel wall while the front of the snake extends and straightens.[116] The front portion then flexes and forms an anchor point, and the posterior is straightened and pulled forwards. This mode of locomotion is slow and very demanding, up to seven times the cost of laterally undulating over the same distance.[112] This high cost is due to the repeated stops and starts of portions of the body as well as the necessity of using active muscular effort to brace against the tunnel walls.[citation needed]
The movement of snakes in arboreal habitats has only recently been studied.[118] While on tree branches, snakes use several modes of locomotion depending on species and bark texture.[118] In general, snakes will use a modified form of concertina locomotion on smooth branches, but will laterally undulate if contact points are available.[118] Snakes move faster on small branches and when contact points are present, in contrast to limbed animals, which do better on large branches with little 'clutter'.[118]
Gliding snakes (Chrysopelea) of Southeast Asia launch themselves from branch tips, spreading their ribs and laterally undulating as they glide between trees.[116][119][120] These snakes can perform a controlled glide for hundreds of feet depending upon launch altitude and can even turn in midair.[116][119]
The slowest mode of snake locomotion is rectilinear locomotion, which is also the only one where the snake does not need to bend its body laterally, though it may do so when turning.[121] In this mode, the belly scales are lifted and pulled forward before being placed down and the body pulled over them. Waves of movement and stasis pass posteriorly, resulting in a series of ripples in the skin.[121] The ribs of the snake do not move in this mode of locomotion and this method is most often used by largepythons,boas, andvipers when stalking prey across open ground as the snake's movements are subtle and harder to detect by their prey in this manner.[116]
Interactions with humans
Most common symptoms of any kind of snake bite envenomation.[122][123] Furthermore, there is vast variation in symptoms between bites from different types of snakes.[122]
Vipera berus, one fang in glove with a small venom stain, the other still in place
Snakes do not ordinarily prey on humans. Unless startled or injured, most snakes prefer to avoid contact and will not attack humans. With the exception of large constrictors, nonvenomous snakes are not a threat to humans. The bite of a nonvenomous snake is usually harmless; their teeth are not adapted for tearing or inflicting a deep puncture wound, but rather grabbing and holding. Although the possibility of infection and tissue damage is present in the bite of a nonvenomous snake, venomous snakes present far greater hazard to humans.[26]: 209 TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) listssnakebite under the "other neglected conditions" category.[124]
Documented deaths resulting from snake bites are uncommon. Nonfatal bites from venomous snakes may result in the need for amputation of a limb or part thereof. Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. Australia averages only one fatal snake bite per year. InIndia, 250,000 snakebites are recorded in a single year, with as many as 50,000 recorded initial deaths.[125] The WHO estimates that on the order of 100,000 people die each year as a result of snake bites, and around three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused by snakebites annually.[126]
The health of people is seriously threatened by snakebites, especially in areas where there is a great diversity of snakes and little access to medical care such as the Amazon Rainforest region in South America.[127] Snakebite is classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "other neglected conditions".[128] Although there aren't many recorded snakebite deaths, the bites can cause serious complications and permanent impairments.[128] The most successful treatment for snakebites is still antivenom, which is made from snake venom.[128] However, access to antivenom differs greatly by location, with rural areas frequently experiencing difficulties with both cost and availability.[129] Clinical studies, serum preparation, and venom extraction are among the intricate procedures involved in the manufacturing of antivenom.[129] The development of alternative treatments and increased accessibility and affordability of antivenom are essential for reducing the global impact of snake bites on human populations.[130]
TheIndian cobra is the most common subject of snake charmings.
In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In such a show, the snake charmer carries a basket containing a snake that he seemingly charms by playing tunes with his flutelike musical instrument, to which the snake responds.[131] The snake is in fact responding to the movement of the flute, not the sound it makes, as snakes lack external ears (though they do have internal ears).[131]
TheWildlife Protection Act of 1972 in India technically prohibits snake charming on the grounds of reducing animal cruelty. Other types of snake charmers use a snake andmongoose show, where the two animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common, as the animals may be seriously injured or killed. Snake charming as a profession is dying out in India because of competition from modern forms of entertainment and environment laws proscribing the practice. Many Indians have never seen snake charming and it is becoming a folktale of the past.[131][132][133][134]
Trapping
TheIrulas tribe ofAndhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu in India have been hunter-gatherers in the hot, dry plains forests, and have practiced the art of snake catching for generations. They have a vast knowledge of snakes in the field. They generally catch the snakes with the help of a simple stick. Earlier, theIrulas caught thousands of snakes for the snake-skin industry. After the complete ban of the snake-skin industry in India and protection of all snakes under theIndian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, they formed the Irula Snake Catcher's Cooperative and switched to catching snakes for removal of venom, releasing them in the wild after four extractions. The venom so collected is used for producing life-saving antivenom, biomedical research and for other medicinal products.[135] TheIrulas are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages.[citation needed]
Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers orwranglers. Modern-day snake trapping involves aherpetologist using a long stick with a V-shaped end. Some television show hosts, likeBill Haast,Austin Stevens,Steve Irwin, andJeff Corwin, prefer to catch them using bare hands.[citation needed]
Consumption
Snake meat, in a Taipei restaurant
Consuming snake flesh and related goods is a reflection of many cultures around the world, especially in Asian nations like China, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Because of its supposed health benefits and aphrodisiac qualities, snake meat is frequently regarded as a delicacy and ingested.[136] It is customary to drink wine laced with snake blood in an attempt to increase virility and vigor.[136] Traditional Chinese medicine holds that snake wine, a traditional beverage infused with whole snakes, offers medicinal uses.[136] Snake wine's origins are in Chinese culture. However, using snake goods creates moral questions about conservation and animal welfare.[137] It is important to pay attention to and regulate the sustainable harvesting of snakes for human food, particularly in areas where snake populations are in decline as a result of habitat degradation and overexploitation.[137]
Pets
In theWestern world, some snakes are kept as pets, especially docile species such as theball python andcorn snake. To meet the demand, acaptive breeding industry has developed. Snakes bred in captivity are considered preferable to specimens caught in the wild and tend to make better pets.[138] Compared with more traditional types of companion animal, snakes can be very low-maintenance pets; they require minimal space, as most common species do not exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, and can be fed relatively infrequently—usually once every five to fourteen days. Certain snakes have a lifespan of more than 40 years if given proper care.[citation needed]
Inancient Mesopotamia,Nirah, the messenger god ofIštaran, was represented as a serpent onkudurrus, orboundary stones.[139] Representations of two intertwined serpents are common inSumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork[139] and still appear sporadically oncylinder seals and amulets until as late as the thirteenth century BC.[139] The horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) appears inKassite andNeo-Assyrian kudurrus[139] and is invoked inAssyrian texts as a magical protective entity.[139] A dragon-like creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until theHellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC).[139] This creature, known inAkkadian as themušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.[139] It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld godNinazu,[139] but later became the attendant to theHurrian storm-godTishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's sonNingishzida, the Babyloniannational godMarduk, the scribal godNabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.[139]
InEgyptian history, the snake occupies a primary role with the Nile cobra adorning the crown of the pharaoh in ancient times. It wasworshipped as one of the gods and was also used for sinister purposes: murder of an adversary and ritual suicide (Cleopatra).[140] Theouroboros was a well-knownancient Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.[141] The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",[141] a serpent with five heads, who, according to theAmduat, the oldest survivingBook of the Afterlife, was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively.[141] The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines inthe tomb ofTutankhamun.[141] In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol byGnostic Christians[141] and chapter 136 of thePistis Sophia, an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth".[141] In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.[141]
In theBible, KingNahash of Ammon, whose name means "Snake", is depicted very negatively, as a particularly cruel and despicable enemy of the ancient Hebrews.[citation needed]
The ancient Greeks used theGorgoneion, a depiction of a hideous face with serpents for hair, as anapotropaic symbol to ward off evil.[142] In aGreek myth described by Pseudo-Apollodorus in hisBibliotheca,Medusa was aGorgon with serpents for hair whose gaze turned all those who looked at her to stone and was slain by the heroPerseus.[143][144][145] In the Roman poetOvid'sMetamorphoses,Medusa is said to have once been a beautiful priestess ofAthena, whom Athena turned into a serpent-haired monster after she was raped by the godPoseidon in Athena's temple.[146] In another myth referenced by theBoeotian poetHesiod and described in detail by Pseudo-Apollodorus, the heroHeracles is said to have slain theLernaean Hydra,[147][148] a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps ofLerna.[147][148]
The legendary account of the foundation ofThebes mentioned a monster snake guarding the spring from which the new settlement was to draw its water. In fighting and killing the snake, the companions of the founderCadmus all perished—leading to the term "Cadmean victory" (i.e. a victory involving one's own ruin).[149]
Three medical symbols involving snakes that are still used today areBowl of Hygieia, symbolizing pharmacy, and theCaduceus andRod of Asclepius, which are symbols denoting medicine in general.[66]
One of the etymologies proposed for the common female first nameLinda is that it might derive from Old GermanLindi orLinda, meaning a serpent.[citation needed]
India is often called the land of snakes and is steeped in tradition regarding snakes.[150] Snakes are worshipped as gods even today with many women pouring milk on snake pits (despite snakes' aversion for milk).[150] The cobra is seen on the neck ofShiva andVishnu is depicted often as sleeping on a seven-headed snake or within the coils of a serpent.[151] There are also several temples in India solely for cobras sometimes calledNagraj (King of Snakes) and it is believed that snakes are symbols of fertility. There is a Hindu festival calledNag Panchami each year on which day snakes are venerated and prayed to. See alsoNāga.[152]
Many ancient Peruvian cultures worshipped nature.[154] They emphasized animals and often depicted snakes in their art.[155]
Religion
Ballcourt marker from the Postclassic site ofMixco Viejo in Guatemala. This sculpture depictsKukulkan, jaws agape, with the head of a human warrior emerging from his maw.[156]
Snakes are used inHinduism as a part of ritual worship.[157] In the annualNag Panchami festival, participants worship either live cobras or images ofNāgas. LordShiva is depicted in most images with a snake coiled around his neck.[158]Puranic literature includes various stories associated with snakes, for exampleShesha is said to hold all the planets of the Universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories ofVishnu from all his mouths. Other notable snakes in Hinduism areVasuki,Takshaka,Karkotaka, andPingala. The termNāga is used to refer to entities that take the form of large snakes in Hinduism andBuddhism.[159]
Snakes have been widely revered in many cultures, such as inancient Greece where the serpent was seen as a healer.[160]Asclepius carried a serpent wound around his wand, a symbol seen today on many ambulances.[161] InJudaism, the snake ofbrass is also a symbol of healing, of one's life being saved from imminent death.[162]
In some parts ofChristianity, the redemptive work ofJesus Christ is compared to saving one's life through beholding theNehushtan (serpent of brass).[165]Snake handlers use snakes as an integral part of church worship, to demonstrate their faith in divine protection. However, more commonly in Christianity, the serpent has been depicted as a representative ofevil and sly plotting, as seen in the description inGenesis of a snake temptingEve in theGarden of Eden.[166]Saint Patrick is purported to have expelled all snakes from Ireland while converting the country to Christianity in the 5th century, thus explaining the absence of snakes there.[167]
In Christianity and Judaism, the snake makes its infamous appearance in the first book of the Bible when a serpent appears beforeAdam and Eve and tempts them with theforbidden fruit from theTree of Knowledge.[166] The snake returns in theBook of Exodus whenMoses turns his staff into a snake as a sign of God's power, and later when he makes the Nehushtan, a bronze snake on a pole that when looked at cured the people of bites from the snakes that plagued them in the desert. The serpent makes its final appearance symbolizingSatan in theBook of Revelation: "And he laid hold on the dragon the old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years."[168]
InNeo-Paganism andWicca, the snake is seen as a symbol of wisdom and knowledge.[169] Additionally, snakes are sometimes associated withHecate, the Greek goddess ofwitchcraft.[170]
Medicine
Several compounds from snake venoms are being researched as potential treatments or preventatives for pain, cancers, arthritis, stroke, heart disease, hemophilia, and hypertension, as well as to control bleeding (e.g., during surgery).[171][172][173]
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