Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited sinceprehistoric times. There is evidence ofhuman habitation from around 250,000 years ago.[27] Apierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ± 700BP, found in 1995 in Divje Babe cave nearCerkno, is considered a kind of flute, and possibly the oldest musical instrument discovered in the world.[28] In the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to theCro-Magnon, such as pierced bones, bone points, and a needle were found by archaeologistSrečko Brodar inPotok Cave.[29][30]
The area that is present-day Slovenia was inRoman times shared betweenVenetia et Histria (region X ofRoman Italia in the classification ofAugustus) and the provincesPannonia andNoricum. The Romans established posts atEmona (Ljubljana),Poetovio (Ptuj), andCeleia (Celje); and constructed trade and military roads that ran across Slovene territory fromItaly to Pannonia. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the area was subject to invasions by theHuns andGermanic tribes during their incursions into Italy. A part of the inner state was protected with a defensive line of towers and walls calledClaustra Alpium Iuliarum. Acrucial battle betweenTheodosius I andEugenius took place in theVipava Valley in 394.[34][35]
TheSlavic tribes migrated to the Alpine area after the westward departure of theLombards (the last Germanic tribe) in 568, and, under pressure fromAvars, established aSlavic settlement in the Eastern Alps. From 623 to 624 or possibly 626 onwards,King Samo united the Alpine and Western Slavs against the Avars and Germanic peoples and established what is referred to as Samo's Kingdom. After its disintegration following Samo's death in 658 or 659, the ancestors of theSlovenes located in present-dayCarinthia formed the independentduchy of Carantania,[36] andCarniola, later duchy Carniola. Other parts of present-day Slovenia were again ruled by Avars beforeCharlemagne's victory over them in 803.
A depiction of an ancient democratic ritual of Slovene-speaking tribes, which took place on thePrince's Stone inSlovene until 1414
TheCarantanians, one of the ancestral groups of the modern Slovenes, particularly theCarinthian Slovenes, were the first Slavic people toaccept Christianity. They were mostly Christianized by Irish missionaries, among themModestus, known as the "Apostle of Carantanians". This process, together with the Christianization of theBavarians, was later described in the memorandum known as theConversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, which is thought to have overemphasized the role of the Church of Salzburg in the Christianization process over similar efforts of the Patriarchate ofAquileia.
In the mid-8th century, Carantania became avassalduchy under the rule of theBavarians, who beganspreading Christianity. Three decades later, theCarantanians were incorporated, together with the Bavarians, into theCarolingian Empire. During the same periodCarniola, too, came under the Franks, and was Christianised fromAquileia. Following the anti-Frankish rebellion ofLiudewit at the beginning of the 9th century, theFranks removed the Carantanian princes, replacing them with their own border dukes. Consequently, the Frankishfeudal system reached the Slovene territory.
After the victory of EmperorOtto I over theMagyars in 955, Slovene territory was divided into a number of border regions of theHoly Roman Empire. Carantania was elevated into theDuchy of Carinthia in 976.
By the 11th century, the Germanization of what is nowLower Austria, effectively isolated the Slovene-inhabited territory from the otherwestern Slavs, speeding up the development of theSlavs of Carantania and ofCarniola into an independent Carantanian/Carniolans/Slovene ethnic group. By theHigh Middle Ages, the historic provinces of Carniola,Styria,Carinthia,Gorizia,Trieste, andIstria developed from the border regions and were incorporated into the medievalHoly Roman Empire. The consolidation and formation of these historical lands took place in a long period between the 11th and 14th centuries, and were led by a number of important feudal families, such as theDukes of Spanheim, theCounts of Gorizia, theCounts of Celje, and, finally, theHouse of Habsburg. In a parallel process, an intensive Germanization significantly diminished the extent of Slovene-speaking areas. By the 15th century, theSlovene ethnic territory was reduced to its present size.[37]
In 1335,Henry of Gorizia, Duke of Carinthia, Landgrave of Carniola and Count of Tyrol died without a male heir, his daughterMargaret was able to keep theCounty of Tyrol, while the Wittelsbach emperorLouis IV passed Carinthia and Carniolan march to the Habsburg dukeAlbert II of Austria, whose mother,Elisabeth of Carinthia is a sister of the late dukeHenry of Gorizia. Therefore, most of the territory of present-day Slovenia became a hereditary land of theHabsburg monarchy. As with the other component parts of theHabsburg monarchy, Carinthia and Carniola remained a semi-autonomous state with its own constitutional structure for a long time. Thecounts of Celje, a feudal family from this area who in 1436 acquired the title of state princes, wereHabsburgs' powerful competitors for some time. This large dynasty, important at a European political level, had its seat in Slovene territory but died out in 1456. Its numerous large estates subsequently became the property of the Habsburgs, who retained control of the area right up until the beginning of the 20th century.Patria del Friuli ruled present western Slovenia untilVenetian takeover in 1420.
At the end of the Middle Ages, theSlovene Lands suffered a serious economic and demographic setback because of theTurkish raids. In 1515, apeasant revolt spread across nearly the whole Slovene territory. In 1572 and 1573 theCroatian-Slovenian peasant revolt wrought havoc throughout the wider region. Such uprisings, which often met with bloody defeats, continued throughout the 17th century.[37]
Due to limited opportunities, between 1880 and 1910 there was extensive emigration; around 300,000 Slovenes (1 in 6) emigrated to other countries,[39] mostlyto the US, but alsoto South America (the main part toArgentina), Germany,Egypt, and to larger cities in Austria-Hungary, especiallyVienna andGraz. Despite this emigration, the population of Slovenia increased significantly.[39] Literacy was exceptionally high, at 80–90%.[39]
TheBattles of the Isonzo took place mostly in rugged mountainous areas above the Soča River.
World War I brought heavy casualties to Slovenes, particularly the twelveBattles of the Isonzo, which took place in present-day Slovenia's western border area with Italy. Hundreds of thousands of Slovene conscripts were drafted into theAustro-Hungarian Army, and over 30,000 of them died. Hundreds of thousands of Slovenes fromPrincely County of Gorizia and Gradisca were resettled inrefugee camps in Italy and Austria. While the refugees in Austria received decent treatment, the Slovene refugees in Italian camps were treated as state enemies, and several thousand died of malnutrition and diseases between 1915 and 1918.[40] Entire areas of theSlovene Littoral were destroyed.
TheTreaty of Rapallo of 1920 left approximately 327,000 out of the total population of 1.3 million Slovenes in Italy.[41][42] After thefascists took power in Italy, they were subjected to a policy of violent FascistItalianization. This caused the mass emigration of Slovenes, especially the middle class, from the Slovene Littoral andTrieste toYugoslavia and South America. Those who remained organized several connected networks of both passive and armed resistance. The best known was themilitant anti-fascist organizationTIGR, formed in 1927 to fight Fascist oppression of the Slovene and Croat populations in theJulian March.[43][44]
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia)
The proclamation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs atCongress Square in Ljubljana on 29 October 1918
TheSlovene People's Party launched a movement for self-determination, demanding the creation of a semi-independentSouth Slavic state underHabsburg rule. The proposal was picked up by most Slovene parties, and a mass mobilization of Slovene civil society, known as theDeclaration Movement, followed.[45] This demand was rejected by the Austrian political elites; but following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the aftermath of theFirst World War, theNational Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs took power inZagreb on 6 October 1918. On 29 October, independence was declared by a national gathering in Ljubljana, and by the Croatian parliament, declaring the establishment of the newState of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs.
On 1 December 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs merged withSerbia, becoming part of the newKingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; in 1929 it was renamed theKingdom of Yugoslavia. The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized compared to other less developed parts of Yugoslavia, became the main centre of industrial production: Compared to Serbia, for example, Slovenian industrial production was four times greater; and it was 22 times greater than inNorth Macedonia. The interwar period brought further industrialization in Slovenia, with rapid economic growth in the 1920s, followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the1929 economic crisis andGreat Depression.
Following aplebiscite in October 1920, the Slovene-speaking southernCarinthia was ceded toAustria. With theTreaty of Trianon, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was awarded the mostly Slovene-inhabitedPrekmurje region, formerly part of Austria-Hungary. Slovenes living in territories that fell under the rule of the neighboring states—Italy, Austria, and Hungary—were subjected toassimilation.
During World War II,Nazi Germany andHungary annexed northern areas (brown and dark green areas, respectively), while FascistItaly annexed the vertically hatched black area (solid black western part having been annexed by Italy in 1920 with theTreaty of Rapallo). Some villages were incorporated into theIndependent State of Croatia. After 1943, Germany also occupied the area that Italy had annexed.
Slovenia was the only present-day European nation that was trisected and completely annexed into bothNazi Germany and FascistItaly during World War II.[46] In addition, thePrekmurje region in the east was annexed to Hungary, and some villages in theLower Sava Valley were incorporated in the newly created Nazi puppetIndependent State of Croatia (NDH). Axis forcesinvaded Yugoslavia in April 1941 and defeated the country in a few weeks. The southern part, includingLjubljana, was annexed to Italy, while the Nazis took over the northern and eastern parts of the country. The Nazis had a plan ofethnic cleansing of these areas,[47] and they resettled or expelled the local Slovene civilian population to the puppet states ofNedić's Serbia (7,500) andNDH (10,000). In addition, some 46,000 Slovenes were expelled to Germany, including children who were separated from their parents and allocated to German families.[48][49] At the same time, the ethnic Germans in theGottschee enclave in the Italian annexation zone were resettled to the Nazi-controlled areas cleansed of their Slovene population.[50]Around 30,000 to 40,000 Slovene men were drafted to theGerman Army and sent to the Eastern front. Slovene was banned from education, and its use in public life was limited.[46]
After the resistance started in summer 1941, Italian violence against the Slovene civilian population escalated. The Italian authorities deported some 25,000 people toconcentration camps, which equaled 7.5% of the population of their occupation zone. The most infamous ones wereRab andGonars. To counter the Communist-led insurgence, the Italians sponsored local anti-guerrilla units, formed mostly by the local conservative Catholic Slovene population that resented the revolutionary violence of the partisans. After theItalian armistice of September 1943, the Germans took over both the Province of Ljubljana and the Slovenian Littoral, incorporating them into what was known as theOperation Zone of Adriatic Coastal Region. They united the Slovene anti-Communist counter-insurgence into theSlovene Home Guard and appointed a puppet regime in the Province of Ljubljana. The anti-Nazi resistance however expanded, creating its own administrative structures as the basis for Slovene statehood within a new, federal and socialist Yugoslavia.[53][54]
Approximately 8% of the Slovene population died duringWorld War II. The small Jewish community, mostly in thePrekmurje region, perished in 1944 in theholocaust of Hungarian Jews. The German-speaking minority, amounting to 2.5% of the Slovenian population prior to the war, was either expelled or killed in the aftermath of the war. Hundreds ofIstrian Italians and Slovenes that were members of fascist and collaborationist forces, alongside civilians presumed to oppose communism, were killed in thefoibe massacres, and more than 25,000 fled or were expelled fromSlovenian Istria.[55][56] Around 130,000 persons, mostly political and military opponents, were executed in May and June 1945.[57]
Average strength of Yugoslav economy as a deviation from the main (Yugoslavia = 100 %) indicator 1975.SR Slovenia (dark green) was, along withSR Croatia andSAP Vojvodina (light green), the richest entity ofSFR Yugoslavia.
After the failure offorced collectivisation that was attempted from 1949 to 1953, a policy of gradual economic liberalisation, known asworkers self-management, was introduced under the advice and supervision of the Slovene Marxist theoretician and Communist leaderEdvard Kardelj, the main ideologue of theTitoist path to socialism. Suspected opponents of this policy both from within and outside the Communist party were persecuted and thousands were sent toGoli otok.
The late 1950s saw a policy of liberalization in the cultural sphere as well, and unlimited border crossing into western countries was allowed, both for Yugoslav citizens and for foreigners. In 1956,Josip Broz Tito, together with other leaders, founded theNon-Aligned Movement. In the 1950s, Slovenia's economy developed rapidly and was strongly industrialized. With further economic decentralization of Yugoslavia in 1965–66, Slovenia'sdomestic product was 2.5 times the average of Yugoslav republics. While a Communist country, after the Tito–Stalin split Yugoslavia initiated a period of military neutrality and non-alignment. JAT Yugoslav Airlines was the flag carrier and during its existence it grew to become one of the leading airlines in Europe both by fleet and destinations. By the 1970s more airlines were created including SlovenianAdria Airways mostly focused in the growing tourist industry. Until the 1980s,Slovenia enjoyed relatively broad autonomy within the federation. It was the most liberal communist state in Europe, and the passport of the Yugoslavia Federation allowed Yugoslavians to travel to the most world countries of any socialist country during the Cold War. Many people worked in western countries, which reduced unemployment in their home country.
Opposition to the regime was mostly limited to intellectual and literary circles and became especially vocal after Tito's death in 1980 when the economic and political situation in Yugoslavia became very strained.[37] Political disputes around economic measures were echoed in the public sentiment, as many Slovenians felt they were being economically exploited, having to sustain an expensive and inefficient federal administration.
In 1987 a group of intellectuals demanded Slovene independence in the57th edition of the magazineNova revija. Demands for democratisation and more Slovenian independence were sparked off. A mass democratic movement, coordinated by theCommittee for the Defence of Human Rights, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms.
In September 1989, numerousconstitutional amendments were passed to introduceparliamentary democracy to Slovenia.[58][59] On 7 March 1990, the Slovenian Assembly changed the official name of the state to the "Republic of Slovenia".[60][61] In April 1990, the first democratic election in Slovenia took place, and the united opposition movementDEMOS led byJože Pučnik emerged victorious.
Slovenian Territorial Defense Units counterattacking aYugoslav People's Army tank which entered Slovenia during theTen-Day War, 1991
The initial revolutionary events in Slovenia pre-dated theRevolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe by almost a year, but went largely unnoticed by international observers. On 23 December 1990, more than 88% of the electorate voted for a sovereign and independent Slovenia.[62][63] On 25 June 1991, Slovenia became independent.[2][64] On 27 June in the early morning, theYugoslav People's Army dispatched its forces to prevent further measures for the establishment of a new country, which led to theTen-Day War.[65][66] On 7 July, theBrijuni Agreement was signed, implementing a truce and a three-month halt of the enforcement of Slovenia's independence.[67] At the end of the month, the last soldiers of the Yugoslav Army left Slovenia.
Slovenia joined theEuropean Union on 1 May 2004.[70] Slovenia has one Commissioner in theEuropean Commission, and seven Slovene parliamentarians were elected to theEuropean Parliament at elections on 13 June 2004. In 2004 Slovenia also joinedNATO.[71] Slovenia subsequently succeeded in meeting theMaastricht criteria and joined theEurozone (the first transition country to do so) on 1 January 2007.[72] It was the first post-Communist country to hold thePresidency of the Council of the European Union, for the first six months of 2008. On 21 July 2010, it became a member of the OECD.[73]
Four major European geographic regions meet in Slovenia: the Alps, theDinarides, thePannonian Plain, and the Mediterranean Sea. Although on the shore of theAdriatic Sea near the Mediterranean Sea, most of Slovenia is in theBlack Seadrainage basin. The Alps—including theJulian Alps, theKamnik-Savinja Alps and theKarawank chain, as well as thePohorje massif—dominate Northern Slovenia along its long border withAustria. Slovenia's Adriatic coastline stretches approximately 47 kilometres (29 mi)[83] from Italy to Croatia.
The term "Karst topography" refers to that of southwestern Slovenia'sKarst Plateau, alimestone region of underground rivers, gorges, and caves, between Ljubljana and the Mediterranean Sea. On thePannonian plain to the East and Northeast, toward the Croatian and Hungarian borders, the landscape is essentially flat. However, most of Slovenia is hilly or mountainous, with around 90% of its land surface 200 m (656 ft) or moreabove sea level.
More than half of Slovenia, which is 11,823 km2 or 4,565 sq mi, is forested;[84] ranking it third in Europe,by percentage of area forested, afterFinland andSweden. The areas are covered mostly bybeech,fir-beech and beech-oak forests and have a relatively high production capacity.[85] Remnants ofprimeval forests are still to be found, the largest in theKočevje area. Grassland covers 5,593 km2 (2,159 sq mi) and fields and gardens (954 km2 or 368 sq mi). There are 363 km2 (140 sq mi) of orchards and 216 km2 (83 sq mi) of vineyards.[citation needed]
Solution runnels (also known as rillenkarren) are akarst feature on theKarst Plateau, as in many other karst areas of the world.
Slovenia is in a rather activeseismic zone because of its position on the smallAdriatic Plate, which is squeezed between theEurasian Plate to the north and theAfrican Plate to the south and rotates counter-clockwise.[86] Thus the country is at the junction of three importantgeotectonic units: the Alps to the north, the Dinaric Alps to the south and the Pannonian Basin to the east.[86] Scientists have been able to identify 60 destructive earthquakes in the past. Additionally, a network of seismic stations is active throughout the country.[86]
The first regionalisations of Slovenia were made by geographersAnton Melik (1935–1936) andSvetozar Ilešič (1968). The newer regionalisation byIvan Gams divided Slovenia in the following macroregions:[87]
According to a newer natural geographic regionalisation, the country consists of fourmacroregions. These are the Alpine, the Mediterranean, the Dinaric, and thePannonian landscapes. Macroregions are defined according to major relief units (the Alps, the Pannonian plain, the Dinaric mountains) and climate types (submediterranean, temperate continental, mountain climate).[88] These are often quite interwoven.
Protected areas of Slovenia include national parks, regional parks, and nature parks, the largest of which isTriglav National Park. There are 286Natura 2000 designated protected areas, which include 36% of the country's land area, the largest percentage among European Union states.[89] Additionally, according toYale University'sEnvironmental Performance Index, Slovenia is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection efforts.[90]
Climate types of Slovenia 1970–2000 andclimographs for selected settlements
Slovenia is located in temperate latitudes. The climate is also influenced by the variety of relief, and the influence of theAlps and theAdriatic Sea. In the northeast, thecontinental climate type with the greatest difference between winter and summer temperatures prevails. In the coastal region, there is a sub-Mediterranean climate. The effect of the sea on the temperature rates is also visible up theSoča Valley, while a severeAlpine climate is present in the high mountain regions. There is a strong interaction between these three climatic systems across most of the country.[91][92]
Precipitation, often coming from theGulf of Genoa,[93] varies across the country as well, with over 3,500 mm (138 in) in some western regions and dropping down to 800 mm (31 in) inPrekmurje. Snow is quite frequent in winter and the record snow cover in Ljubljana was recorded in 1952 at 146 cm (57 in).
Compared to Western Europe, Slovenia is not very windy, because it lies in the slipstream of the Alps. The average wind speeds are lower than in the plains of the nearby countries. Due to the rugged terrain, local vertical winds with daily periods are present. Besides these, there are three winds of particular regional importance: thebora, thejugo, and thefoehn. The jugo and the bora are characteristic of the Littoral. Whereas the jugo is humid and warm, the bora is usually cold and gusty. The foehn is typical of the Alpine regions in the north of Slovenia. Generally present in Slovenia are the northeast wind, the southeast wind and thenorth wind.[94]
Lake Bohinj, the largest Slovenian lake and one of the two headwaters of theSava River
The territory of Slovenia mainly (16,423 square kilometers or 6,341 square miles, i.e. 81%) belongs to theBlack Sea basin, and a smaller part (3,850 square kilometers or 1,490 square miles, i.e. 19%) belongs to theAdriatic Sea basin. These two parts are divided into smaller units in regard to their central rivers, theMura River basin, theDrava River basin, theSava River basin withKolpa River basin, and the basin of the Adriatic rivers.[95] In comparison with otherdeveloped countries, water quality in Slovenia is considered to be among the highest in Europe. One of the reasons is undoubtedly that most of the rivers rise on the mountainous territory of Slovenia. However, this does not mean that Slovenia has no problems with surface water and groundwater quality, especially in areas withintensive farming.[96]
Thebiological diversity of the country is high, with 1% of the world's organisms on 0.004% of the Earth's surface area.[102] There are 75 mammal species, among themmarmots,Alpine ibex, andchamois. There are numerousdeer,roe deer,boar, andhares.[103] Theedible dormouse is often found in the Slovenian beech forests. Trapping these animals is a long tradition and is a part of the Slovenian national identity.[104]
Slovenia is home to an exceptionally diverse number of cave species, with a few tens ofendemic species.[111] Among the cave vertebrates, the only known one is theolm, living in Karst, Lower Carniola, and White Carniola.
There are 13 domestic animals native to Slovenia,[114] of eight species (hen, pig, dog, horse, sheep, goat, honey bee, and cattle).[115] Among these are theKarst Shepherd,[116] theCarniolan honeybee, and theLipizzan horse.[115] Themarble trout or marmorata (Salmo marmoratus) is an indigenous Slovenian fish.[117] Extensive breeding programmes have been introduced to repopulate the marble trout into lakes and streams invaded by non-indigenous species oftrout. Slovenia is also home to thewels catfish.
More than 2,400 fungal species have been recorded from Slovenia[118] and, since that figure does not include lichen-forming fungi, the total number of Slovenian fungi already known is undoubtedly much higher. Many more remain to be discovered.
Slovenia is the third most-forested country in Europe,[119] with 58.3% of the territory covered by forests.[120] The forests are an important natural resource, and logging is kept to a minimum.[121] In the interior of the country are typical Central European forests, predominantlyoak andbeech. In the mountains,spruce,fir, andpine are more common. Pine trees grow on theKarst Plateau, although only one-third of the region is covered by pine forest. Thelime/linden tree, common in Slovenian forests, is a national symbol. Thetree line is at 1,700 to 1,800 metres (5,600 to 5,900 feet).[122]
Slovenia harbors many plants ofethnobotanically useful groups. Of 59 known species of ethnobotanical importance, some species such asAconitum napellus,Cannabis sativa andTaxus baccata are restricted for use as per the Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia.[123]
The executive andadministrative authority in Slovenia is held by theGovernment of Slovenia (Vlada Republike Slovenije),[69] headed by thePrime Minister and the council of ministers or cabinet, who are elected by theNational Assembly (Državni zbor Republike Slovenije). The legislative authority is held by thebicameralParliament of Slovenia, characterised by an asymmetric duality.[clarification needed][126] The bulk of power is concentrated in the National Assembly, which consists of ninety members. Of those, 88 are elected by all the citizens in a system ofproportional representation, whereas two are elected by the registered members of theautochthonous Hungarian and Italianminorities. Elections take place every four years. TheNational Council (Državni svet Republike Slovenije), consisting of forty members, appointed to represent social, economic, professional and local interest groups, has a limited advisory and control power.[126]The 1992–2004 period was marked by the rule of theLiberal Democracy of Slovenia, which was responsible for gradual transition from theTitoist economy to the capitalist market economy. It later attracted much criticism by neo-liberal economists, who demanded a less gradual approach. The party's presidentJanez Drnovšek, who served as prime minister between 1992 and 2002, was one of the most influential Slovenian politicians of the 1990s,[127] alongside PresidentMilan Kučan (who served between 1990 and 2002).[128][129]
The 2005–2008 period was characterized by over-enthusiasm after joining the EU. During the first term ofJanez Janša's government, for the first time after independence, the Slovenian banks saw theirloan-deposit ratios veering out of control. There was over-borrowing from foreign banks and then over-crediting of customers, including localbusiness magnates. After the onset of theGreat Recession andEuropean sovereign-debt crisis, the left-wing coalition that replaced Janša's government in the 2008 elections, had to face the consequences of the 2005–2008 over-borrowing. Attempts to implement reforms that would help economic recovery were met by student protesters, led by a student who later became a member ofJanez Janša'sSDS, and by the trade unions. The proposed reforms were postponed in a referendum. The left-wing government was ousted with a vote of no confidence.
In March 2020, Janez Janša became prime minister for third time in the new coalition government of SDS, theModern Centre Party (SMC),New Slovenia (NSi) and Pensioners' Party (DeSUS).[130] Janez Janša was known as a right-wing populist and a supporter of former US PresidentDonald Trump and right-wing Prime MinisterViktor Orban of Hungary.[131][132] In April 2022, liberal opposition, theFreedom Movement, won the parliamentaryelection. The Freedom Movement won 34.5% of the vote, compared with 23.6% for Janša'sSlovenian Democratic party.[133] On 25 May 2022, Slovenia's parliament voted to appoint the leader of Freedom Movement,Robert Golob, as the newPrime Minister of Slovenia.[134]
Judicial powers in Slovenia are executed by judges, who are elected by the National Assembly. Judicial power in Slovenia is implemented by courts with general responsibilities and specialised courts that deal with matters relating to specific legal areas. TheState Prosecutor is an independent state authority responsible for prosecuting cases brought against those suspected of committing criminal offences. TheConstitutional Court, composed of nine judges elected for nine-year terms, decides on the conformity of laws with the Constitution; all laws and regulations must also conform with the general principles of international law and with ratified international agreements.[37]
TheSlovenian Armed Forces provide military defence independently or within an alliance, in accordance with international agreements. Since conscription was abolished in 2003, it is organized as a fully professionalstanding army.[135] TheCommander-in-Chief is thePresident of the Republic of Slovenia, while operational command is in the domain of theChief of the General Staff of the Slovenian Armed Forces. In 2016, military spending was an estimated 0.91% of the country's GDP. Since joiningNATO, the Slovenian Armed Forces have taken a more active part in supporting international peace. They have participated in peace support operations and humanitarian activities. Among others, Slovenian soldiers are a part of international forces serving inBosnia and Herzegovina,Kosovo, andAfghanistan.[136] According to the 2024Global Peace Index, the country is the 9th most peaceful country in the world.[137]
Officially, Slovenia is subdivided into 212 municipalities (twelve of which have the status of urban municipalities). The municipalities are the only bodies of local autonomy in Slovenia. Each municipality is headed by a mayor (župan), elected every four years by popular vote, and a municipal council (občinski svet). In the majority of municipalities, the municipal council is elected through the system ofproportional representation; only a few smaller municipalities use theplurality voting system. In the urban municipalities, the municipal councils are called town (or city) councils.[138] Every municipality also has a Head of the Municipal Administration (načelnik občinske uprave), appointed by the mayor, who is responsible for the functioning of the local administration.[138]
There is no official intermediate unit between the municipalities and the Republic of Slovenia. The 62 administrative districts, officially called "Administrative Units" (upravne enote), are only subdivisions of the national government administration and are named after their respective bases of government offices.[139]
Slovenia's traditional regions are based on the formerHabsburgcrown lands, which includedCarniola,Carinthia,Styria, and theLittoral. Stronger than with either Carniola as a whole, or with Slovenia as a state, Slovenes tend to identify themselves with the traditional regions of theSlovene Littoral,Prekmurje, and traditional (sub)regions, such as Upper Carniola, Lower Carniola, and, to a lesser extent, Inner Carniola.[140]
The capital city Ljubljana was historically the administrative seat of Carniola and belonged toInner Carniola,[141] except for the Šentvid district, which was inUpper Carniola and also where the border between German-annexed territory and the ItalianProvince of Ljubljana was during theSecond World War.[141]
The 12statistical regions have no administrative function and are subdivided into two macroregions for the purpose of theRegional policy of the European Union.[142]These two macroregions are:
Eastern Slovenia (Vzhodna Slovenija – SI01), which groups the Mura, Drava, Carinthia, Savinja, Central Sava, Lower Sava, Southeast Slovenia, and Inner Carniola–Karst statistical regions.
Western Slovenia (Zahodna Slovenija – SI02), which groups the Central Slovenia, Upper Carniola, Gorizia, and Coastal–Karst statistical regions.
In 2004–06, the economy grew on average by nearly 5% a year in Slovenia; in 2007, it expanded by almost 7%. The growth surge was fuelled by debt, particularly among firms, and especially in construction. TheGreat Recession andEuropean sovereign-debt crisis had a significant impact on the domestic economy.[148] The construction industry was severely hit in 2010 and 2011.[149]
In 2009, SlovenianGDP per capita shrank by 8%, the biggest decline in the European Union after theBaltic countries and Finland. An increasing burden for the Slovenian economy has been its rapidly aging population.[150]
In August 2012, the year-on-year contraction was 0.8%; however, 0.2% growth was recorded in the first quarter (in relation to the quarter before, after data was adjusted according to season and working days).[151] Year-on-year contraction has been attributed to the fall in domestic consumption and the slowdown in export growth. The decrease in domestic consumption has been attributed to the fiscalausterity, to the freeze on budget expenditure in the final months of 2011,[152] to the failure of the efforts to implementeconomic reforms, to inappropriate financing, and to the decrease in exports.[153]
Due to the effects of the crisis, it was expected that several banks had to be bailed out by EU funds in 2013; however, needed capital was able to be covered by the country's own funds. Fiscal actions and legislations aiming on the reduction of spendings as well as several privatisations supported an economic recovery as from 2014.[154] The real economic growth rate was at 2.5% in 2016 and accelerated to 5% in 2017.[155] The construction sector has seen a recent increase,[155] and the tourism industry is expected to have continuous rising numbers.[156]
Since 2017, Slovenia has experienced moderate economic growth, with GDP growth averaging around 2% per year between 2017 and 2019. However, like many other countries, Slovenia's economy has been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with a contraction of around 5% in 2020. Overall, Slovenia's economy is relatively small but open and has shown resilience in recent years.
Slovenia's manufacturing sector is one of the largest contributors to the country's economy, accounting for around 25% of GDP. The country has a strong tradition in manufacturing, particularly in the areas of automotive and electrical engineering. Other important sectors include services, which account for around 65% of GDP, and agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which account for around 2% of GDP.
Slovenia is a highly export-oriented economy, with exports accounting for around 80% of GDP. The country's main export partners are other European countries, particularly Germany, Italy, and Austria. Key exports include machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, and chemicals.
The government of Slovenia has implemented a range of policies aimed at promoting economic growth and development. These include efforts to attract foreign investment, reduce red tape, and increase investment in research and development. The country has also introduced reforms aimed at improving the efficiency of its labor market and increasing the flexibility of its economy. The government's approach to consultingbusiness associations has been noted by the European Commission as a good practice example.[157]
Almost two-thirds of people are employed in services, and over one-third in industry and construction.[158] Slovenia benefits from a well-educated workforce, well-developed infrastructure, and its location at the crossroads of major trade routes.[145]
The level offoreign direct investment (FDI) per capita in Slovenia is one of the lowest in the EU,[145] and the labor productivity and the competitiveness of the Slovenian economy is still significantly below the EU average.[159][160] Taxes are relatively high, thelabor market is seen by business interests as being inflexible, and industries are losing sales to China, India, and elsewhere.[161]
High level of openness makes Slovenia extremely sensitive to economic conditions in its main trading partners and changes in its international price competitiveness.[162] The main industries are motor vehicles, electric and electronic equipment, machinery,pharmaceuticals, and fuels.[145] Examples of major Slovenian companies operating in Slovenia include the home appliance manufacturerGorenje, the pharmaceutical companiesKrka and Lek (Novartis' subsidiary), the oil distributing companyPetrol Group, energy distribution companys GEN, GEN-I, HSE andRevoz, a manufacturing subsidiary ofRenault.[163][164][165]
In 2018, the net energy production was 12,262 GWh and consumption was 14,501 GWh. Hydroelectric plants produced 4,421 GWh, thermal plants produced 4,049 GWh, and theKrško Nuclear Power Plant produced 2,742 GWh (50% share that goes to Slovenia; other 50% goes to Croatia due to joint ownership). Domestic electricity consumption was covered 84.6% by domestic production; the percentage is decreasing from year to year meaning Slovenia is more and more dependent on electricity imports.[166]
A new 600 MW block ofŠoštanj thermal power plant finished construction and went online in the autumn of 2014.[167] The new 39.5 MW HE Krško hydro power plant was finished in 2013.[168] The 41.5 MW HE Brežice and 30.5 MW HE Mokrice hydro power plants were built on theSava River in 2018 and the construction of ten more hydropower plants with a cumulative capacity of 338 MW is planned to be finished by 2030. A largepumped-storage hydro power plant Kozjak on theDrava River is in the planning stage.
At the end of 2018, at least 295 MWp ofphotovoltaic modules and 31,4 MW ofbiogas powerplants were installed. Compared to 2017, renewable energy sources contributed 5.6 percentage points more into whole energy consumption. There is interest to add more production in the area of solar and wind energy sources (subsidising schemes are increasing economic feasibility), but microlocation settlement procedures take enormous toll on the efficiency of this intitiatve (nature preservation vs. energy production facilities dilemma).[166]
Slovenia offers tourists a wide variety of natural and cultural amenities. Different forms of tourism have developed. The tourist gravitational area is considerably large, however the tourist market is small. There has been no large-scale tourism and no acute environmental pressures;[169] in 2017,National Geographic Traveller's Magazine declared Slovenia as the country with the world's mostsustainable tourism.[170] The nation's capital,Ljubljana, has many importantBaroque andVienna Secession buildings, with several important works of the native born architectJože Plečnik.[171]
Important parts of tourism in Slovenia include congress andgambling tourism. Slovenia is the country with the highest percentage ofcasinos per 1,000 inhabitants in the European Union.[178]Perla inNova Gorica is the largest casino in the region.[179]
Most of foreign tourists to Slovenia come from the key European markets:Italy,Austria,Germany,Croatia,Belgium,Netherlands,Serbia,Russia andUkraine, followed byUnited Kingdom andIreland.[180] European tourists create more than 90% of Slovenia's tourist income. In 2016, Slovenia was declared the world's first green country by the Netherlands-based organization Green Destinations.[181] On being declared the most sustainable country in 2016, Slovenia had a big part to play at theITB Berlin to promote sustainable tourism.
Geography has dictated transport routes in Slovenia. Significant mountain ranges, major rivers and proximity to the Danube played roles in the development of the area's transportation corridors. One recent particular advantage are thePan-European transport corridorsV (the fastest link between the North Adriatic, and Central and Eastern Europe) andX (linking Central Europe with the Balkans). This gives it a special position in the European social, economic and cultural integration and restructuring.[182]
The road freight and passenger transport constitutes the largest part of transport in Slovenia at 80%.[183] Personal cars are much more popular than public road passenger transport, which has significantly declined.[183][184] Slovenia has a very highhighway and motorway density compared to the European Union average.[185] The highway system, the construction of which was accelerated after 1994,[186] has slowly but steadily transformed Slovenia into a largeconurbation.[187] Other state roads have been rapidly deteriorating because of neglect and the overall increase in traffic.[185]
The existing Slovenian railways are out-of-date and have difficulty competing with the motorway network; partially also as a result of dispersed population settlement.[188] Due to this fact and the projected increase in traffic through the port ofKoper, which is primarily by train, a second rail on the Koper-Divača route is in early stages of starting construction.[189] With a lack of financial assets, maintenance and modernisation of the Slovenian railway network have been neglected.[190] Due to the out-of-date infrastructure, the share of the railway freight transport has been in decline in Slovenia.[191] The railway passenger transport has been recovering after a large drop in the 1990s.[191] The Pan-European railway corridors V and X, and several other major European rail lines intersect in Slovenia.[190]
The major Slovenian port is thePort of Koper. It is the largest Northern Adriatic port in terms of container transport,[192] with almost 590,000TEUs annually[193] and lines to all major world ports.[194][195] It is much closer to destinations east of theSuez than the ports of Northern Europe.[194] In addition, the maritime passenger traffic mostly takes place in Koper.[196] Two smaller ports used for the international passenger transport as well as cargo transport are located inIzola andPiran. Passenger transport mainly takes place with Italy and Croatia.[197]Splošna plovba,[198] the only Slovenian shipping company, transports freight and is active only in foreign ports.[196]
Air transport in Slovenia is very low,[191] but has significantly grown since 1991.[199] Of the three international airports in Slovenia,Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport in central Slovenia is the busiest,[199] with connections to many major European destinations.[200] TheMaribor Edvard Rusjan Airport is located in the eastern part of the country and thePortorož Airport in the west.[199] The state-ownedAdria Airways was the largest Slovenian airline; however in 2019 it declared bankruptcy and ceased operations.[199] Since 2003, several new carriers have entered the market, mainly low-cost airlines.[185] The only Slovenianmilitary airport is theCerklje ob Krki Air Base in the southwest.[201] There are also 12 public airports in Slovenia.[199]
Population density in Slovenia bymunicipality. The four main urban areas are visible: Ljubljana and Kranj (centre), Maribor (northeast) and theSlovene Istria (southwest)
The population of Slovenia as of June 2024 is 2,118,937.[202] With 103 inhabitants per square kilometer (262/sq mi), Slovenia ranks low among the European countries in population density (compared to 402/km2 (1,040/sq mi) for theNetherlands or 195/km2 (510/sq mi) for Italy). TheInner Carniola–Karst Statistical Region has the lowest population density while theCentral Slovenia Statistical Region has the highest.[203]
Slovenia is among the European countries with the most pronounced ageing of its population, ascribable to a low birth rate and increasing life expectancy.[204] Almost all Slovenian inhabitants older than 64 are retired, with no significant difference between the genders.[205] The working-age group is diminishing in spite of immigration.[206] The proposal to raise the retirement age from the current 57 for women and 58 for men was rejected in areferendum in 2011.[150] In addition, the difference among the genders regarding life expectancy is still significant.[205] Thetotal fertility rate (TFR) in 2014 was estimated at 1.33 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1.[207] The majority of children are born to unmarried women (in 2016, 58.6% of all births were outside of marriage).[208]In 2018, life expectancy at birth was 81.1 years (78.2 years male, and 84 years female).[209]
In 2009, thesuicide rate in Slovenia was 22 per 100,000 persons per year, which places Slovenia among the highest ranked European countries.[210] Nonetheless, from 2000 until 2010, the rate has decreased by about 30%. The differences between regions and the genders are pronounced.[211]
Depending on definition, between 65% and 79% of people live in wider urban areas.[213] According toOECD definition of rural areas none of theSlovene statistical regions is mostly urbanised, meaning that 15% or less of the population lives in rural communities. According to this definition statistical regions are classified:
The only large town is the capital, Ljubljana. Other (medium-sized) towns include Maribor, Celje, and Kranj.[215][216] Overall, there are eleven urban municipalities in Slovenia.
The official language in Slovenia isSlovene, which is a member of theSouth Slavic language group. In 2002, Slovene was the native language of around 88% of Slovenia's population according to the census, with more than 92% of the Slovenian population speaking it in their home environment.[217][218] This statistic ranks Slovenia among the most homogeneous countries in the EU in terms of the share of speakers of the predominant mother tongue.[219]
Slovene is a highly diverse Slavic language in terms ofdialects,[220] with different degrees of mutual intelligibility. Accounts of the number of dialects range from as few as seven[221][222][223] dialects, often considered dialect groups or dialect bases that are further subdivided into as many as 50 dialects.[224] Other sources characterize the number of dialects as nine[225] or as eight.[226]
Front cover of a bilingual passport in Slovene and Italian
Hungarian andItalian, spoken by the respective minorities, enjoy the status of official languages in the ethnically mixed regions along the Hungarian and Italian borders, to the extent that even the passports issued in those areas are bilingual. In 2002 around 0.2% of the Slovenian population spoke Italian and around 0.4% spoke Hungarian as their native language. Hungarian is co-official with Slovene in 30 settlements in 5 municipalities (whereof 3 are officially bilingual). Italian is co-official with Slovene in 25 settlements in 4 municipalities (all of them officially bilingual).
Romani,[227] spoken in 2002 as the native language by 0.2% of people, is a legally protected language in Slovenia. Romani speakers mainly belong to the geographically dispersed and marginalized Roma community.[228]
German, which used to be the largest minority language in Slovenia prior to World War II (around 4% of the population in 1921), is now the native language of only around 0.08% of the population, the majority of whom are more than 60 years old.[218]Gottscheerish orGranish, the traditional German dialect ofGottschee County, faces extinction.[229]
A significant number of people in Slovenia speak a variant ofSerbo-Croatian (Serbian,Croatian,Bosnian, orMontenegrin) as their native language. These are mostly families who moved to Slovenia from otherformer Yugoslav republics. Altogether, Serbo-Croatian in its different forms is the second natively spoken language in Slovenia with 5.9% of population. In 2002, 0.4% of the Slovenian population declared themselves to be native speakers ofAlbanian and 0.2% native speakers ofMacedonian.[218]Czech, the fourth-largest minority language in Slovenia prior to World War II (after German, Hungarian, and Serbo-Croatian), is now the native language of a few hundred residents of Slovenia.[218]
Slovenia ranks among the top European countries in knowledge of foreign languages. The most taught foreign languages are English, German, Italian, French and Spanish. As of 2007[update], 92% of the population between the age of 25 and 64 spoke at least one foreign language and around 71.8% of them spoke at least two foreign languages, which was the highest percentage in the European Union.[230] According to theEurobarometer survey, as of 2005[update] the majority of Slovenes could speakCroatian (61%) and English (56%).[231]: 21 A reported 42% of Slovenes could speak German, which was one of the highest percentages outside German-speaking countries.[231] Italian is widely spoken on theSlovenian Coast and in some other areas of theSlovene Littoral. Around 15% of Slovenians can speak Italian, which is (according to the Eurobarometer pool) the third-highest percentage in the European Union, after Italy andMalta.[232]
In 2015, about 12% (237,616 people) of the population in Slovenia was born abroad.[233] About 86% of the foreign-born population originated from other countries of former Yugoslavia as (in descending order)Bosnia-Herzegovina, followed by immigrants fromCroatia,Serbia,North Macedonia, andKosovo.[233]
By the beginning of 2017, there were about 114,438 people with foreign citizenship residing in the country making up 5.5% of the total population. Of these foreigners, 76% had citizenships of the other countries from former Yugoslavia (excluding Croatia). Additionally 16.4% had EU-citizenships and 7.6% had citizenships of other countries.[233]
Ethnic composition of Slovenia (according to the 2002 census)[234]
Slovene
83.06%
Serb
1.98%
Croat
1.81%
Bosniak
1.10%
Other minorities
4.85%
Undeclared or unknown
8.9%
According to the 2002 census, Slovenia's main ethnic group areSlovenes (83%); however, their share in the total population is continuously decreasing, due to their relatively lowfertility rate. At least 13% (2002) of the population were immigrants from other parts ofFormer Yugoslavia and their descendants.[235] They have settled mainly in cities and suburbanised areas.[236] Relatively small but protected by theConstitution of Slovenia are theHungarian and theItalian ethnic minority.[237][238][239] A special position is held by the autochthonous and geographically dispersedRoma ethnic community.[240][241]
The number of people immigrating into Slovenia rose steadily from 1995[242] and has been increasing even more rapidly in recent years. After Slovenia joined the EU in 2004, the annual number of immigrants doubled by 2006 and increased by half yet again by 2009.[243] In 2007, Slovenia had one of the fastest growingnet migration rates in the European Union.[242]
The National Shrine Mary Help of Christians atBrezje
Before World War II, 97% of the Slovenian population identified as members of theCatholic Church in the country, around 2.5% as Lutheran, and around 0.5% of residents identified themselves as members of other denominations.[218] After 1945, the country underwent a process of gradual but steadysecularization. After a decade of persecution of religions, the Communist regime adopted a policy of relative tolerance towards churches. After 1990, the Catholic Church regained some of its former influence, but Slovenia remains a largely secularized society.
The 2018 Eurobarometer data shows 73.4% of population identifying as Catholic[1] that fell to 72.1% in the 2019 Eurobarometer survey.[244] According to the Catholic Church data, the Catholic population fell from 78.04% in 2009 to 72.11% in 2019[245] The vast majority of Slovenian Catholics belong to theLatin Church. A small number ofEastern Catholics live in theWhite Carniola region.[246]
Despite a relatively small number ofProtestants (less than 1% in 2002), the Protestant legacy is historically significant given that the Slovene standard language and Slovene literature were established by theProtestant Reformation.Primoz Trubar, a theologian in theLutheran tradition, was one of the most influentialProtestant Reformers in Slovenia. Protestantism was extinguished in theCounter-Reformation implemented by theHabsburg dynasty, which controlled the region. It only survived in the easternmost regions due to protection of Hungarian nobles, who often happened to beCalvinist themselves. Today, a significantLutheran minority lives in the easternmost region ofPrekmurje, where they represent around a fifth of the population and are headed by a bishop with the seat inMurska Sobota.[247]
According to the 2002 census,Islam is the second largest religious denomination in the country, with around 2.4% of the population. Most Slovenian Muslims came fromBosnia.[248]
Slovenia has long been home to aJewish community. Despite the losses suffered during theHolocaust, Judaism still numbers a few hundred adherents, mostly living in Ljubljana, site of the sole remaining active synagogue in the country.[249]
In the 2002, around 10% of Slovenes declared themselvesatheists, another 10% professed no specific denomination, and around 16% declined to answer. According to theEurobarometer Poll 2010,[250] 32% of Slovenian citizens "believe there is a god", whereas 36% "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 26% "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".[250]
Slovenia's education ranks as the 12th best in the world and 4th best in theEuropean Union, being significantly higher than theOECD average, according to theProgramme for International Student Assessment.[251] Among people age 25 to 64, 12% have attended higher education, while on average Slovenes have 9.6 years of formal education. According to an OECD report, 83% of adults ages 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high school degree, well above the OECD average of 74%; among 25- to 34-year-olds, the rate is 93%.[252] According to the 1991 census there is 99.6%literacy in Slovenia.Lifelong learning is also increasing.[253]
Responsibility for education oversight at primary and secondary level in Slovenia lies with the Ministry of Education and Sports. After non-compulsory pre-school education, children enter the nine-year primary school at the age of six.[254] Primary school is divided into three periods, each of three years. In the academic year 2006–2007 there were 166,000 pupils enrolled in elementary education and more than 13,225 teachers, giving a ratio of one teacher per 12 pupils and 20 pupils per class.
After completing elementary school, nearly all children (more than 98%) go on to secondary education, either vocational, technical, or general secondary programmes (gimnazija). The last concludes with thematura, a comprehensive exam that allows the graduates to enter a university. 84% of secondary school graduates go on to tertiary education.[253]
The Sower (1907), by the Impressionist painterIvan Grohar, became ametaphor for Slovenes[261][262] and was a reflection of the transition from a rural to an urban culture.[263]
Slovenia's architectural heritage includes 2,500 churches, 1,000 castles, ruins, and manor houses, farmhouses, and special structures for drying hay, calledhayracks (kozolci).[264]
The most picturesque church for photographers is the medieval and Baroque building onBled Island. NearPostojna there is a fortress calledPredjama Castle, half hidden in a cave. Museums in Ljubljana and elsewhere feature unique items such as the controversialDivje Babe flute, and theoldest wheel in the world. Ljubljana has medieval, Baroque, Art Nouveau, and modern architecture. The architectPlečnik's architecture and his innovative paths and bridges along the Ljubljanica are notable and on UNESCO tentative list.
Potica as part of traditional Slovenian Easter breakfastThe more-than-400-year-old Žametovka vine growing outside the Old Vine House in Maribor. To the right of the vine is a daughter vine taken from a cutting of the old vine.
Slovenian cuisine is a mixture of Central European cuisine (especiallyAustrian andHungarian),Mediterranean cuisine andBalkan cuisine. Historically, Slovenian cuisine was divided into town, farmhouse, cottage, castle, parsonage and monastic cuisines. Due to the variety of Slovenian cultural and natural landscapes, there are more than 40 distinct regional cuisines.[267]
Each year since 2000, theRoasted Potato Festival has been organized by theSociety for the Recognition of Roasted Potatoes as a Distinct Dish. Roasted potatoes, which have been traditionally served in most Slovenian families only on Sundays, have been depicted on a special edition ofpost marks by thePost of Slovenia in 2012.[268] The best known sausage iskranjska klobasa. Slovenia is also the home of the world'soldest vine, which is 400 years old.
The most notable music festival of Slovene music was historically theSlovenska popevka festival.[274] Between 1981 and 2000 theNovi Rock festival was notable for bringing rock music acrossIron curtain from the West to the Slovenian and then Yugoslav audience. The long tradition of jazz festivals inTitoist Yugoslavia began with the Ljubljana Jazz Festival which has been held annually in Slovenia since 1960.[275]
Slovene film actors and actresses historically includeIda Kravanja, who played her roles asIta Rina in the early European films, andMetka Bučar.[276] After WW II, one of the most notable film actors wasPolde Bibič, who played a number of roles in many films that were well received in Slovenia, and also performed in television and radio drama.[277]
"Zdravljica" (A Toast; part) with rejection mark fromAustrian censorship (due to potential revolutionary content); the music of Zdravljica is now the Slovenian nationalanthem
Harmony singing is a deep rooted tradition in Slovenia, and is at least three-part singing (four voices), while in some regions even up to eight-part singing (nine voices). Slovenian folk songs, thus, usually resounds soft and harmonious, and are very seldom in minor. Traditional Slovenian folk music is performed on Styrian harmonica (the oldest type of accordion), fiddle, clarinet,zithers, flute, and by brass bands of alpine type. Ineastern Slovenia, fiddle and cimbalon bands are calledvelike goslarije. From 1952 on, theSlavko Avsenik's band began to appear in broadcasts, movies, and concerts all over theWest Germany, inventing the original "Oberkrainer" country sound. The band produced nearly 1000 original compositions, an integral part of theSlovenian-style polka legacy. Many musicians followed Avsenik's steps, includingLojze Slak.[283][284][285]
Slovenia's visual arts, architecture, and design are shaped by a number of architects, designers, painters, sculptors, photographers, graphics artists, as well as comics, illustration and conceptual artists. Two significant prestigious institutions exhibiting works of Slovene visual artists are theNational Gallery of Slovenia and theMuseum of Modern Art.
Modern architecture in Slovenia was introduced byMax Fabiani, and in the mid-war period,Jože Plečnik andIvan Vurnik.[292] In the second half of the 20th century, the national and universal style were merged by the architectsEdvard Ravnikar and first generation of his students: Milan Mihelič, Stanko Kristl, Savin Sever. The next generation is mainly still active, includingMarko Mušič,Vojteh Ravnikar, andJurij Kobe. Selected works of Jože Plečnik which shaped Ljubljana during the inter-war period were inscribed onUNESCO's list ofWorld Heritage Sites in 2021.[293]
A number ofconceptual visual art groups formed, includingOHO,Group 69, andIRWIN. Nowadays, the Slovene visual arts are diverse, based on tradition, reflect the influence of neighboring nations and are intertwined with modern European movements.[294]
Internationally most notable Slovenian design items include the 1952Rex chair, aScandinavian design-inspired wooden chair, by interior designerNiko Kralj that was given in 2012 a permanent place inDesignmuseum,Denmark, the largest museum of design in Scandinavia, and is included in the collection of theMuseum of Modern ArtMOMA in New York City, as well. Anindustrial design item that has changed the international ski industry isElan SCX byElan company.
The sculpture of the poetValentin Vodnik was created by Alojz Gangl in 1889 as part ofVodnik Monument, the first Slovene national monument.
In 1841,Janez Puhar invented a process for photography on glass, recognized on 17 June 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[297]Gojmir Anton Kos was a notablerealist painter and photographer between First World War and WW II.
Alpine skierTina Maze, a double Olympic gold medalist and the overall winner of the 2012–13 World Cup season
Slovenia is a natural sports venue, with many Slovenians actively practicing sports.[298] A variety of sports are played in Slovenia on a professional level,[299] with international successes in handball, basketball, volleyball, football, ice hockey, rowing, swimming, tennis, boxing, climbing, road cycling and athletics. Prior to World War II, gymnastics and fencing used to be the most popular sports in Slovenia, with athletes likeLeon Štukelj andMiroslav Cerar gaining gold Olympic medals.[300] Football gained popularity in the interwar period. After 1945, basketball, handball and volleyball have become popular among Slovenians, and from the mid-1970s, winter sports as well. Since 1992, Slovenian sportspeople have won55 Olympic medals, including 14 gold medals, and26 Paralympic medals with five golds.[301][302]
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