TheSlovenes, also known asSlovenians (Slovene:Slovenci[slɔˈʋéːntsi]), are aSouth Slavicethnic group native toSlovenia and adjacent regions inItaly,Austria andHungary. Slovenes share a common ancestry,culture, andhistory, and speakSlovene as their native language. Although Slovenes are linguistically classified as South Slavs, genetic studies indicate they share closer genetic affinities with West Slavic and Central European populations than with other South Slavs such as Bulgarians and Macedonians.[48][49]
Most Slovenes live within the borders of the independent Slovenia (2,100,000 inhabitants, 83% Slovenes est. July 2020). In the Slovenian national census of 2002, 1,631,363 people ethnically declared themselves as Slovenes,[2] while 1,723,434 people claimed Slovene as their native language.[50]
In a 2013Y-DNA study, 29-32% of 399–458 sampled Slovenian males belong to Y-DNAHaplogroup R1a, more frequent than in South Slavic peoples. The second largestHaplogroup was theHaplogroup R1b, which was at 26-28%, following was theHaplogroup I, with 30-31%. Due to the geographic position of Slovenia, the population is substantially diverse, sharing genes withItalic peoples,Germanic,Slavs andHungarians. The Slovenian population displays close genetic affiliations withWest Slavic,South Slavic,Austrians andItalic populations. The homogenous genetic strata of the West Slavic populations and the Slovenian population suggest the existence of a common ancestral population in the central European region.[54] The R-Z92 branch of R-Z280 which is significant amongEast Slavs is recorded as completely absent among Slovenes.[55] In 2016 study, including 100 sampled Slovenians, 27.1% belong to R1b, of which 11.03% of R1b belongs to the R-P312 branch, 6% to the eastern and 4% to R-U106. In the 2018 autosomal analysis of Slovenian population, the Slovenes clustered withHungarians and were close toCzechs.[56]
In the 6th century AD,Slavic people settled the region between theAlps and theAdriatic Sea in two consecutive migration waves: the first wave came from theMoravian lands around 550,[57][58]while the second wave, coming from the southeast, moved into the area after the migration of theLombards to Italy in 568.[59]
From 623 to 658 Slavic peoples between the upperElbe River and theKarawanks mountain range united under the leadership ofKing Samo (Slovene:Kralj Sámo) in what became known[when?] as"Samo's Tribal Union". The tribal union collapsed after Samo's death in 658, but a smaller Slavic tribal principality,Carantania (Slovene:Karantanija), remained, with its centre in the present-day region ofCarinthia.
Faced with the pressing danger ofAvar tribes from the east, theCarantanians accepted a union withBavaria in 745, and later in the 8th century recognizedFrankish rule[citation needed] and accepted Christianity.[60] The last Slavic state formation in the region, theprincipality of PrinceKocel, lost its independence in 874. Slovene ethnic territory subsequently shrank due to pressure fromGermans from the west and the arrival ofHungarians in thePannonian plain; it stabilized in its present form in the 15th century.
16th century: Slovene Protestant reformation and consolidation of Slovene
The first mentions of a common Slovene ethnic identity, transcending regional boundaries, date from the 16th century.[61] During this period, the first books in Slovene were written by theProtestant preacherPrimož Trubar and his followers, establishing the base for the development of standard Slovene. In the second half of the 16th century, numerous books were printed in Slovene, including an integral translation of the Bible byJurij Dalmatin.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Protestantism was suppressed by the Habsburg-sponsoredCounter Reformation, which introduced the new aesthetics ofBaroque culture.
18th century: Slovenes under Maria Theresa and Joseph II
TheEnlightenment in the Habsburg monarchy brought significant social and cultural progress to the Slovene people. It hastened economic development and facilitated the appearance of a middle class. Under the reign ofMaria Theresa and EmperorJoseph II (1765–1790) many reforms were undertaken in the administration and society, including land reforms, the modernization of the Church and compulsory primary education in Slovene (1774). The start of cultural-linguistic activities by Slovene intellectuals of the time brought about a national revival and the birth of the Slovene nation in the modern sense of the word. Before theNapoleonic Wars, some secular literature in Slovene emerged. During the same period, the first history of theSlovene Lands as an ethnic unity was written byAnton Tomaž Linhart, whileJernej Kopitar compiled the first comprehensivegrammar of Slovene.[62]
Between 1809 and 1813, Slovenia was part of theIllyrian Provinces, an autonomous province of the NapoleonicFrench Empire, with Ljubljana as the capital. Although the French rule was short-lived, it significantly contributed to the rise of national consciousness and political awareness of Slovenes. After the fall of Napoleon, all Slovene Lands were once again included in theAustrian Empire. Gradually, a distinct Slovene national consciousness developed, and the quest for a political unification of all Slovenes became widespread. In the 1820s and 1840s, the interest in Slovene language and folklore grew enormously, with numerous philologists advancing the first steps towards standardization of the language.Illyrian movement,Pan-Slavic andAustro-Slavic ideas gained importance. However, the intellectual circle around the philologistMatija Čop and the Romantic poetFrance Prešeren was influential in affirming the idea of Slovene linguistic and cultural individuality, refusing the idea of merging Slovenes into a wider Slavic nation.
1840s: the first Slovene national political programme
In the 1840s, theSlovene national movement developed far beyond literary expression.[63] In 1848, the first Slovene national political programme, calledUnited Slovenia (Zedinjena Slovenija), was written in the context of theSpring of Nations movement within the Austrian Empire.[64] It demanded a unification of all Slovene-speaking territories in an autonomous kingdom, namedSlovenija,[64] within the empire and an official status for Slovene.[65] Although the project failed,[64] it served as an important platform of Slovene political activity in the following decades,[66] particularly in the 1860s and 1870s, when mass Slovene rallies, namedtabori, were organised.[67] The conflict between Slovene and German nationalists deepened.[68] In 1866, some Slovenes were left to Italy,[68] and in 1867 some remained in the Hungarian part of theAustria-Hungary. This significantly affected the nation and led to further radicalisation of the Slovene national movement.[69] In the 1890s, the first Slovene political parties were established. All of them were loyal to Austria, but they were also espousing a common South Slavic cause.[68]
Between 1880 andWorld War I, the largest numbers of Slovenes emigrated to America. Most of these went between 1905 and 1913, although the exact number is impossible to determine because Slovenes were often classified asAustrians,Italians,Croats, or under other, broader labels, such asSlavonic orSlavic.[70] Those who settled inBethlehem, Pennsylvania came to be calledWindish, from the Austrian German termWindisch 'Wend'.[71]
The largest group of Slovenes in the United States eventually settled inCleveland, Ohio, and the surrounding area. The second-largest group settled in Chicago, principally on theLower West Side. The American Slovenian Catholic Union (Ameriško slovenska katoliška enota) was founded as an organization to protect Slovene-American rights inJoliet, Illinois, 64 km (40 mi) southwest ofChicago, and in Cleveland. Today there are KSKJ branches all over the country offering life insurance and other services to Slovene-Americans. Freethinkers were centered around 18th and Racine Ave. in Chicago, where they founded theSlovene National Benefit Society; other Slovene immigrants went to southwestern Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio and the state ofWest Virginia to work in the coal mines and lumber industry. Some Slovenes also went to thePittsburgh orYoungstown, Ohio, areas, to work in the steel mills, as well asMinnesota'sIron Range, to work in the iron mines and also toCopper Country on the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan for copper mining. Many also went west toRock Springs inWyoming to work in the coal mines that supported the Union Pacific Railway.
There were more than 30,000 casualties among ethnic Slovenes duringWorld War I because they were and still are inhabiting the territory where theIsonzo Front was fought. While the majority of them were drafted in theAustro-Hungarian Army, also Slovene civil inhabitants from theGorizia and Gradisca region suffered in hundreds of thousands because they were resettled inrefugee camps where, however, Slovene refugees were treated as state enemies by Italians and several thousands died of malnutrition in Italian refugee camps.[72]
The annexed westernquarter of Slovene speaking territory, and approximately 327,000 out of the total population of 1.3[73] million Slovenes,[74] were subjected to forcedFascist Italianization. On the map of present-day Slovenia with its traditional regions' boundaries.
In the ex-Austrian Empire area given to Italy in exchange for joiningGreat Britain inWorld War I, the forcedFascist Italianization of theSlovene minority in Italy (1920–1947) was under no international restraint especially afterBenito Mussolini came to power in 1922. Already during the period of Italian occupation, between the years 1918 and 1920, all Slovene cultural associations (Sokol, "reading rooms" etc.) had been forbidden.[75]Fascist Italy brought Italian teachers fromsouthern Italy to Italianize ethnic Slovene andCroatian children,[76] while the Slovene and Croatian teachers, poets, writers, artists and clergy were exiled toSardinia and elsewhere tosouthern Italy.[citation needed] In 1926, claiming that it was restoring surnames to their original Italian form, the Italian government announced the Italianization of names and surnames not only of citizens of the Slovene minority, but also ofCroatian andGerman.[77][78] Some Slovenes willingly accepted Italianization in order to lose the status of being second-class citizens with no upward social mobility.[citation needed] By the mid-1930s, around 70,000 Slovenes had fled the region, mostly to Yugoslavia andSouth America.[citation needed]
During WWII,Nazi Germany and Hungary occupied northern areas (brown and dark green areas, respectively), whileFascist Italy occupied the vertically hashed black area, includingGottschee area (solid black western part being annexed by Italy already with theTreaty of Rapallo). After 1943, Germany took over the Italian occupational area, as well.
During World War II, Slovenes were in a unique situation. While Greece shared its experience of being trisected, Slovenia was the only country that experienced a further step—absorption and annexation into neighboringNazi Germany,Fascist Italy, and Hungary.[79] After Yugoslavia was invaded byAxis powers on 6 April 1941, Germany and Hungary occupied northern Slovenia. Some villages inLower Carniola were annexed by theIndependent State of Croatia.[80]
The Nazis started a policy of violentGermanisation. During the war, tens of thousands of Slovenes were resettled or chased away, imprisoned, or transported tolabor,internment andextermination camps.[81] Many were sent into exile toNedić's Serbia andCroatia. The numbers of Slovenes drafted to theGerman military and paramilitary formations has been estimated at 150,000 men and women,[82] almost a quarter of them died on various European battlefields, mostly on theEastern Front.[citation needed]
Compared to the German policies in the northern Nazi-occupied area of Slovenia and the forcedFascist italianization in the formerAustrian Littoral that was annexed after the First World War, the initial Italian policy in the central Slovenia was not as violent. Tens of thousands of Slovenes from German-occupiedLower Styria andUpper Carniola escaped to the Province of Ljubljana until June 1941.
However, after resistance started inProvince of Ljubljana, Italian violence against the Slovene civil population easily matched that of the Germans.[83] The province saw the deportation of 25,000 people—which equated to 7.5% of the total population of the province—in one of the most drastic operations in Europe that filled up manyItalian concentration camps, such asRab concentration camp, inGonars concentration camp, Monigo (Treviso), Renicci d'Anghiari, Chiesanuova (Padua) and elsewhere. To suppress the mounting resistance by theSlovene Partisans,Mario Roatta adopted draconian measures ofsummary executions, hostage-taking, reprisals, internments, and the burning of houses and whole villages. The "3C" pamphlet, tantamount to a declaration of war on civilians, involved him inItalian war crimes.
In the summer of 1941, aresistance movement led by theLiberation Front of the Slovene Nation, emerged in both the Italian and in the German occupation zones.[84] The resistance, pluralistic at the beginning, was gradually taken over by theCommunist Party, as in the rest of occupied Yugoslavia.[84] Contrary to elsewhere in Yugoslavia, where on the freed territories the political life was organized by the military itself, theSlovene Partisans were subordinated to the civil political authority of the Front.[85]
In the summer of 1942, a civil war between Slovenes broke out. The two fighting factions were theSlovenian Partisans and theItalian-sponsored anti-communist militia, later re-organized under Nazi command as theSlovene Home Guard. Small units of SlovenianChetniks also existed inLower Carniola andStyria. The Partisans were under the command of the Liberation Front (OF) andTito's Yugoslav resistance, while theSlovenian Covenant served as the political arm of the anti-Communist militia.[citation needed] The civil war was mostly restricted to theProvince of Ljubljana, where more than 80% of the Slovene anti-partisan units were active. Between 1943 and 1945, smaller anti-Communist militia existed in parts of theSlovenian Littoral and inUpper Carniola, while they were virtually non-existent in the rest of the country. By 1945, the total number of Slovene anti-Communist militiamen reached 17,500.[86]
Immediately after the war, some 12,000 members of the Slovene Home Guard were killed in theKočevski Rog massacres, while thousands of anti-communist civilians were killed in the first year after the war.[87] In addition, hundreds ofethnic Italians from theJulian March were killed by the Yugoslav Army and partisan forces in theFoibe massacres; some 27,000Istrian Italians fledSlovenian Istria from Communist persecution in the so-calledIstrian–Dalmatian exodus. Members of the ethnic German minority either fled or were expelled from Slovenia.
The overall number of World War II casualties in Slovenia is estimated at 97,000. The number includes about 14,000 people, who were killed or died for other war-related reasons immediately after the end of the war,[87][88] and the tiny Jewish community, which was nearly annihilated in theHolocaust.[89][88] In addition, tens of thousands of Slovenes left their homeland soon after the end of the war. Most of them settled in Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and the United States.
Most ofCarinthia remained part of Austria and around 42,000 Slovenes (per 1951 population census[citation needed]) were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following theAustrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. Slovenes in the Austrian state ofStyria (4,250)[90] are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of 27 July 1955 states otherwise. Many Carinthians remain uneasy about Slovene territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered thestate after each of the two World Wars.[citation needed] The formergovernor,Jörg Haider, regularly played the Slovene card when his popularity started to dwindle, and indeed relied on the strong anti-Slovene attitudes in many parts of the province for his power base.[citation needed]
Yugoslavia acquired some territory from Italy after WWII but some 100,000 Slovenes remained behind the Italian border, notably aroundTrieste andGorizia.
Following the re-establishment of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, Slovenia became part of theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, declared on 29 November 1943. A socialist state was established, but because of theTito–Stalin split, economic and personal freedoms were broader than in theEastern Bloc. In 1947, Italy ceded most of theJulian March to Yugoslavia, and Slovenia thus regained theSlovene Littoral.
The dispute over the port ofTrieste however remained opened until 1954, until the short-livedFree Territory of Trieste was divided between Italy and Yugoslavia, thus giving Slovenia access to the sea. This division was ratified only in 1975 with theTreaty of Osimo, which gave a final legal sanction to Slovenia's long disputed western border. From the 1950s, theSocialist Republic of Slovenia exercised relatively wide autonomy.
Between 1945 and 1948, a wave of political repressions took place in Slovenia and in Yugoslavia. Thousands of people were imprisoned for their political beliefs. Several tens of thousands of Slovenes left Slovenia immediately after the war in fear of Communist persecution. Many of them settled in Brazil and Argentina, which became the core of Slovenian anti-Communist emigration. More than 50,000 more followed in the next decade, frequently for economic reasons, as well as political ones. These later waves of Slovene immigrants mostly settled in Canada and in Australia, but also in other western countries.[citation needed]
Additionally, due to the removal ofGerman Yugoslavs (which included in many cases ethnic Slovenes of partialGerman orAustrian heritage) fromYugoslavia under the leadership ofJosip Broz Tito, many citizens were interned in concentration and work camps or forcibly expelled from the country in the years that followed WWII.[91] As a result, a large number of German and Austrian Slovenesemigrated toItaly, Austria, Croatia, Hungary, and other European countries. Most who settled in Hungary during this period fled or were expelled to Germany and Austria in turn. Manyexpatriates ultimately settled in theCleveland metropolitan area in the United States; the high concentration of Slovenes in Cleveland specifically is attributed to the industrial opportunities at the time, as well as the existing workforce in the area being largely of Germanic and Slavic descent.[92][93] Many Slovene expats during this period were sponsored to work in the United States by wealthy Slovenes or Slovene community organizations within the Greater Cleveland area, which greatly contributed to the large Slovene population in the city.[94]
In 1948, theTito–Stalin split took place. In the first years following the split, the political repression worsened, as it extended to Communists accused ofStalinism. Hundreds of Slovenes were imprisoned in the concentration camp ofGoli Otok, together with thousands of people of other nationalities. Among the show trials that took place in Slovenia between 1945 and 1950, the most important were theNagode trial against democratic intellectuals and left liberal activists (1946) and theDachau trials (1947–1949), where former inmates ofNazi concentration camps were accused of collaboration with the Nazis. Many members of the Roman Catholic clergy suffered persecution. The case of bishop of LjubljanaAnton Vovk, who was doused with gasoline and set on fire by Communist activists during a pastoral visit toNovo Mesto in January 1952, echoed in the western press.
Between 1949 and 1953, aforced collectivization was attempted. After its failure, a policy of gradual liberalization followed.
In the late 1950s, Slovenia was the first of the Yugoslav republics to begin a process of relative pluralization. A decade ofindustrialisation was accompanied also by a fervent cultural and literary production with many tensions between the government and the dissident intellectuals. From the late 1950s onward, dissident circles started to be formed, mostly around short-lived independent journals, such asRevija 57 (1957–1958), which was the first independent intellectual journal in Yugoslavia and one of the first of this kind in the Communist bloc,[95] andPerspektive (1960–1964). Among the most important critical public intellectuals in this period were the sociologistJože Pučnik, the poetEdvard Kocbek, and the literary historianDušan Pirjevec.
By the late 1960s, the reformist faction gained control of theSlovenian Communist Party, launching a series of reforms, aiming at the modernization of Slovenian society and economy. A new economic policy, known asworkers self-management started to be implemented under the advice and supervision of the main champion of the Yugoslav Communist Party, SloveneEdvard Kardelj.[citation needed]
In 1973, the reformist trend was stopped by the conservative faction of the Slovenian Communist Party as part of a general reining in of liberal tendencies by the Yugoslav communist authorities. A period known as the "Years of Lead"[clarification needed] (Slovene:svinčena leta) followed.[citation needed]
The first clear demand for Slovene independence was made in 1987 by a group of intellectuals in the57th edition of the magazineNova revija. Demands for democratisation and increase of Slovenian independence were sparked off. A mass democratic movement, coordinated by theCommittee for the Defense of Human Rights, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms.In 1991,Slovenia became an independentnation state after a brieften-day war. In December 1991, a newconstitution was adopted,[96] followed in 1992 by the laws ondenationalisation and privatization.[97] The members of theEuropean Union recognised Slovenia as an independent state on 15 January 1992, and theUnited Nations accepted it as a member on 22 May 1992.[98]
2010s: Slovenian disillusionment with socio-economic elites
Based on a German name for the Slovenes,Wenden orWinden, the first researchers of the origin of the Slovenes mistakenly believed that they were descendants of theGermanic tribe of theVandals.[101] Even today, some German speakers refer to the Slovenian minority in Carinthian Austria asWindische, as if a separate ethnicity.[citation needed] This claim is rejected by linguists on the basis that their dialect is by all standards a variant of Slovene.[citation needed] The first to define Slovenes as a separate branch of the Slavic people wasAnton Tomaž Linhart in his workAn Essay on the History of Carniola and Other Lands of the Austrian South Slavs, published in 1791.[102] In it, Linhart also established the linguistic unity of the Slovene ethnic territory and set the foundations of the Sloveneethnography.[103]
After thedisintegration of Yugoslavia during the late 1980s and the formation of independent Slovenia in the early 1990s motivated interest in a particularly Slovenian national identity. One reflection of this was an attempt at the rejection of aSlavic identity in favour of a "Venetic" one. Theautochthonist "Venetic theory" was advanced in the mid 1980s, but it never gained wide currency. The identification with Slavic roots remains strong in Slovenia and in 2004 even led to the establishment of theForum of Slavic Cultures in Ljubljana.
In the late 1980s, several symbols from theMiddle Ages were revived as Slovenian national symbols. Among them, the most popular are the so-calledSlovene Hat which featured in the coat of arms of theSlovene March, and theBlack Panther, a reconstruction of the supposed coat of arms of theCarolingian duchy ofCarantania. After being used in theFlag of Slovenia, the graphical representation ofTriglav has become recognised as a national symbol. Per theConstitution of Slovenia and the Slovenian act on national symbols, the flag of the Slovene nation is a white-blue-red flag without the coat-of-arms. The ratio of the width to height of the flag is one to two.[104]
Freising manuscripts are the first written words in Slovene. Four parchment leaves and a further quarter of a page have been preserved. They consist of three texts in the oldest Slovenian dialect. Linguistic, stylistic and contextual analyses reveal that these are church texts of careful composition and literary form.[citation needed]
Primož Trubar (1508–1586) is the author of the first printed book in Slovene. He was a Slovenian Protestant Reformer of the Lutheran tradition.[citation needed]
Most ethnic Slovenes areRoman Catholic by faith, with some historicalProtestant minorities, especiallyLutherans inPrekmurje. A sizable minority of Slovenes are non-religious or atheists,[105] according to the published data from the 2002 Slovenian census, out of a total of 47,488 Muslims (who represent 2.4% of the total population), 2,804 Muslims (who in turn represent 5.9% of the total Muslims in Slovenia) declared themselves asSlovenian Muslims.[47]
^ab"Population".Statistični urad Republike Slovenije, October 2023. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. 1 October 2023. Retrieved16 April 2024.
^Angela Brittingham; G. Patrizia de la Cruz (June 2006)."Ancestry: 2000 (Census 2000 Brief)"(PDF).United States Census 2000. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 December 2004. Retrieved1 June 2008.
^Zupančič, Jernej (author), Orožen Adamič, Milan (photographer), Filipič, Hanzi (photographer):Slovenci po svetu. In publication:Nacionalni atlas Slovenije (Kartografsko gradivo) / Inštitut za geografijo, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika. Ljubljana: Rokus, 2001.COBISS18593837(in Slovene)
^abcdefghijTrebše-Štolfa, Milica, ed., Klemenčič, Matjaž, resp. ed.:Slovensko izseljenstvo: zbornik ob 50-letnici Slovenske izseljenske matice. Ljubljana: Združenje Slovenska izseljenska matica, 2001.COBISS115722752
^Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international."Page d'erreur 404".France Diplomatie :: Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international. Archived fromthe original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved18 March 2015.
^Črnič, Aleš; Komel, Mirt; Smrke, Marjan; Šabec, Ksenija; Vovk, Tina (2013)."Religious Pluralisation in Slovenia".Teorija in Praksa.50 (1). University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sociology, Political Sciences and Journalism:205–232, 264.ISSN0040-3598.COBISS31869277. Archived fromthe original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved28 February 2017.
^Zupan, Andrej; Vrabec, Katarina; Glavač, Damjan (2013). "The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations".Annals of Human Biology.40 (6):515–526.doi:10.3109/03014460.2013.813584.PMID23879710.
^Polšak, Anton (October 2010)."Slovenci v zamejstvu"(PDF).Seminar ZRSŠ: Drugačna geografija [ZRSŠ Seminary: A Different Geography]. Livške Ravne. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 March 2016.
^Peter Štih: "Ozemlje Slovenije v zgodnjem srednjem veku: osnovne poteze zgodovinskega razvoja od začetka 6. stoletja do konca 9. stoletja" [The territory of Slovenia during early Middle Ages: a basic outline of historical development from early 6th century to late 9th century], Ljubljana, 2001.COBISS111715072
^Natek, Karel (1992). "Karantania".Discover Slovenia. Translated by Cregeen, Martin. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. p. 19.ISBN978-86-361-0802-4. Retrieved12 October 2024.[...] the former inhabitants of the lands of modern Slovenia [...] were overwhelmed by the Slovenes during the migration of nations after 500 AD. In the 6th century AD, west Slavic tribes who had come through Moravia into the eastern Alps, began to dominate the entire area along the Danube between Vienna and Linz and from the High Tauern below Salzburg to Trieste bay the Adriatic. Around 200,000 people lived on this territory, three times bigger than contemporary Slovenia.
^Štih, Peter (13 August 2010). "Structures of the Slovene Territory in the Early Middle Ages".The Middle Ages between the Eastern Alps and the Northern Adriatic: Select Papers on Slovene Historiography and Medieval History. Volume 11 of East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450-1450; ISSN 1872-8103. Translated by Smrke, France. Leiden: Brill. p. 149.ISBN978-90-04-18591-3. Retrieved12 October 2024.The Slavs settled the present-day Slovene territory in the period between 568, when the Lombards moved from Pannonia to Italy, and the last decade of the 6th century, when the Slavs were already clashing with the Bavarians in the Upper Drava Valley and penetrating into Italy across Istria or the Karst.
^Edo Škulj, ed., Trubarjev simpozij (Rome – Celje – Ljubljana: Celjska Mohorjeva družba, Društvo Mohorjeva družba, Slovenska teološka akademija, Inštitut za zgodovino Cerkve pri Teološki fakulteti, 2009).
^Verčič, Dejan (2004)."Slovenia". In Van Ruler, Betteke; Verčič, Dejan (eds.).Public Relations and Communication Management in Europe: A Nation-By-Nation Introduction to Public Relations Theory and Practice. Walter de Gruyter. p. 378.ISBN978-3-11-017612-4.
^Paternost, J. 1981. "Sociolinguistic Aspects of Slovenes in Pennsylvania."The Slavic Languages in Emigre Communities (=International Review of Slavic Linguistics 6, 1–3, special issue, ed. Roland Sussex), 97–120. Edmonton: Linguistic Research, p. 106.
^Petra Svoljšak,Slovenski begunci v Italiji med prvo svetovno vojno (Ljubljana 1991).
^Lipušček, U. (2012)Sacro egoismo: Slovenci v krempljih tajnega londonskega pakta 1915, Cankarjeva založba, Ljubljana.ISBN978-961-231-871-0
^Cresciani, Gianfranco (2004)Clash of civilisations,Italian Historical Society Journal, Vol.12, No.2, p. 4
^Rutar, Borut (1996).TIGR proti duhovnemu genocidu fašizma nad Primorci: Tolminsko, 1918-1941. Ljubljana: Tangram. p. 47.
^Regio decreto legge 10 Gennaio 1926, n. 17: Restituzione in forma italiana dei cognomi delle famiglie della provincia di Trento
^Hrvoje Mezulić-Roman Jelić: O Talijanskoj upravi u Istri i Dalmaciji 1918–1943.: nasilno potalijančivanje prezimena, imena i mjesta, Dom i svijet, Zagreb, 2005.,ISBN953-238-012-4
^Gregor Joseph Kranjc (2013).To Walk with the Devil, University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division, p. introduction 5
^Repe, Božo (2005)."Vzroki za spopad med JLA in Slovenci" [Reasons for the Conflict Between the Yugoslav People's Army and Slovenes](PDF).Vojaška zgodovina [Military History] (in Slovenian).VI (1/05): 5.ISSN1580-4828.
^Slovenski zgodovinski atlas (Ljubljana: Nova revija, 2011), 186.
^abGodeša B., Mlakar B., Šorn M., Tominšek Rihtar T. (2002): "Žrtve druge svetovne vojne v Sloveniji". In:Prispevki za novejšo zgodovino, str. 125–130.
^Merten, Ulrich (2012).Forgotten Voices: The Expulsion of the Germans from Eastern Europe after World War II. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 226.
^"Slovenes".case.edu. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 11 May 2018.
^Taras Kermauner,Slovensko perspektivovstvo (Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 1996).
^Jonsson, Anna (2006)."Changing Concepts of Rights". In P. Ramet, Sabrina; Fink-Hafner, Danica (eds.).Democratic Transition in Slovenia: Value Transformation, Education, And Media. Texas A&M University Press. p. 75.ISBN978-1-58544-525-7.
^Grafenauer, Bogo (1990). "Valvasorjevo mesto v samospoznavanju Slovencev kot posebnega naroda" [Valvasor's Place in the Self-Recognition of Slovenes as an Individual Nation]. In Vovko, Andrej (ed.).Valvasorjev zbornik [Valvasor's Proceedings] (in Slovenian). pp. 7–16.COBISS23632384.
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