The practice ofslavery in present-dayColombia dates back to the pre-Spanish era and persisted until its definitive abolition in 1851. This practice involved thehuman trafficking ofindigenous individuals, initially among indigenous groups such as theChibchas, theMuzos, or thePanches^[1], and later by European traders, particularly thePortuguese, who brought enslaved Africans, to the region. Subsequently, commercial elites of the earlyRepublic of New Granada, what is present-day Colombia, also participated in this trade.

The historical enslavement of indigenous peoples in what is now Colombia predated the arrival of the Spanish. It is documented that theChibchas, theMuzos, and thePanches engaged in enslavement and cannibalism practices. The Spaniards, upon encountering these customs, were appalled and sought to abolish cannibalism and convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity in an effort to mitigate the brutality and depredation present in the region^[2]. As the Spanish conquistadors advanced, indigenous peoples who opposed and fought against the Viceroyalty of New Granada were subsequently enslaved as prisoners of war, in accordance with Spanish customs. For instance, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada distributed captured prisoners among his captains and soldiers^[3]. This practice continued without the knowledge or legal justification of the Spanish crown until the issuance of theLaws of Burgos in 1512, which officiallyabolished the de jure slavery of indigenous peoples. The legal status of the conquered American population was subject to further regulations outlined in theNew Laws of 1542. These laws sought to afford additional protections to these peoples and notably rendered indigenous slavery entirely illegal.

The enforcement of theNew Laws in theSpanish empire led to the execution of numerous colonists who opposed indigenous slavery and sought to perpetuate it^[4] . These laws were instrumental in establishing a robust defense of the indigenous population.

By 1545, the New Lawsrepealed the inheritability of encomiendas, weakening encomenderos by dissolving their grant upon their deaths, again allowing the viceroys and governors to establish new encomiendas.^[5] This reached a new dimension with the colonization of theNew World, since the subjugated native population was insufficient for the exploitation of natural resources.

The Iberian slave trade in Africa began with the Portuguese, who transported prisoners to theMadeira Islands and theAzores. Through theTreaty of Alcáçovas, in 1479 theKingdom of Castile recognized the Portuguese primacy in the African slave trade, which would make them the main providers of enslaved labor for centuries to come.^[5] This reached a new dimension with the colonization of theNew World, since the subjugated native population was insufficient for the exploitation of natural resources and their number was reduced day by day either because of the spread of disease or death from abuse by Spaniards. Thus, the massive trafficking of African slaves to the provinces that would be theViceroyalty of New Granada would begin only after the indigenous population was decimated, beginning in the second half of the 16th century.^[6] This trafficking occurred throughlicencias, a kind of contract with the state in which the crown authorized the slave trade to the colonies in exchange for a tax contribution.^[7]

The countries that controlled the transatlantic slave market in terms of number of slaves shipped were:United Kingdom,Portugal andFrance.

The slave trade was morally justified under the idea that the slave received the "invaluable" evangelizing work of his master, and that theChristian principle of equality referred to equality in the hereafter and the superiority of the white man in the present.^[6] This did not prevent slaves from being transported in subhuman conditions; the journey from Africa to America lasted about two months and was carried out on disease-ridden ships, with poor or no ventilation, and in overcrowded conditions.^[8]

The first Portuguese conquerors to reach the African coasts had a fairly direct approach to enslaving the natives, relying on war expeditions in which they kidnapped the natives; however the process was cumbersome and difficult, so it was eventually replaced bytrading posts, in which manufactured products were exchanged by local leaders in exchange for captured slaves.^[9]

The bulk of African slaves arriving in theNew World was taken from the West African coasts, understood as the space between theSenegal andCuanza rivers.^[9] Determining the ethnic origin of slaves is complex, since the records of the time come from Europeans interested in identifying the port of origin and not in making any type ofethnographic assessment. Because of this, the various researchers who approach the question of the origins ofAfro-Colombian slaves often have no choice but to group their origin into larger regions, often divided into three. Luz Adriana Maya identifies these as: Sudano-Sahelian, the tropical forest and the equatorial rainforest;^[10]John Thornton identifies the three regions as:Upper Guinea,Lower Guinea and theAngola region. These regions do not comprise single peoples, and include great diversity among them.

The westernSahel region is home to ethnic groups such as theFulani,Mande andSonghai. The region was home to the largest empires in Sub-Saharan Africa, theEmpire of Ghana,Empire of Mali andSonghai Empire. The latter two would become a direct part of the slave trade and collapse during it. The two later empires would beMuslim, which would influence not only their dominant ethnic groups but other peoples who would arrive in chains at the ports ofCartagena de Indias such as theBalanta,Bijagós,Diola,Nalu andSusu.^[11]

In theGulf of Guinea region, peoples can be divided into two macro-groups, theKwe peoples and the speakers ofVolta-Niger languages. This region was dominated by smaller states like theAshanti Kingdom as well as the city states ofIfe andBenin. It is the origin of peoples such as theYoruba,Igbo andAshanti people.^[12] This region represents the origin of severalAfro-Caribbean religions still practiced in Colombia such asSanteria, which has its origin in theYoruba religion.

In the southernmost region between theCongo river delta and present-dayAngola, the great majority of the peoples were ofBantu origin, mainlyKikongo andKimbundu speakers.^[13] The region included states such as the smallLunda Empire and the greatKingdom of Kongo, whose kingAfonso I unsuccessfully attempted to stop the slave trade from his domain by sending correspondence toJohn III of Portugal speaking of the "corruption and depravity" of European slavers who depopulated their country. He also sent emissaries to deal with the Pope, but these were intercepted by the Portuguese upon landing inLisbon.^[14]

Cartagena de Indias was the main port of entry of slaves into the country during the colonial period and during its highest boom it turned out to be the most lucrative business in the city. By 1620 the city had 6,000 inhabitants, of whom 1,400 were slaves of African origin, by 1686 the number of slaves had increased to 2,000.^[15] In the census carried out between 1778 and 1780 it was determined that the slave population represented 10% of the population in theSanta Marta Province and 8% in theCartagena Province.^[16]

The use ofslave labor in Cartagena Province turned out to be essential for the economy of both urban and rural areas. With the death of the vast majority of the native population, the work of the Africans became highly relevant. Although during the seventeenth century slave labor was used in both agriculture and livestock, eventually it became concentrated around only the latter since agriculture is seasonal and therefore less profitable for the slave owner who wanted to minimize the hours in which the slave did not work.^[17]

Inside the cities, slavery gained a function not only of production but of status, all the houses of prosperous Spaniards in Cartagena andMompós were endowed with black servitude, which served as a sign of opulence.^[17] These slaves were traded during the 17th century for a value between 200 and 400 silver pesos each.^[18]

The system of production with slave labor required a constant influx of new slaves, since the population ofAfrican origin had negative growth rates in theNew World. This was due to various factors such as the number of men exceeding that of women by a factor of 5 to 1 because they were considered more productive, as well as the high death rate among workers. This required the constant influx of new "Bozales" slaves (born in Africa).^[19]

Slavery in theCartagena province began to decline in the 18th century. During the republican era the institution entered into a true decline, mainly in rural areas where the current system of production ceased to be replaced by cheap mestizo labor. In urban areas slavery managed to maintain its relevance because it was more linked to the exhibition of status than to modes of production, so it continued to be a relevant system until its abolition in the 19th century.^[17]

The first attempts at mining using slaves of African origin in thePacific coast of New Granada occurred during the 17th century. However, these attempts were very limited and mostly unsuccessful due to the great difficulties that the Spanish had in subjugating the native populations. Large mining operations, and with them the massive trafficking of African slaves to the west coast, would not begin until the last two decades of the 17th century.^[20]

The vast majority of the African slaves that would eventually reach the Pacific entered through the port ofCartagena de Indias; in the Pacific they were marketed for a value of about 300silver pesos if they were born inAfrica, and between 400 and 500 if they were born in theNew world.^[21] From analysis of documents of the time, it seems that more than half of the slaves who arrived inChocó were ofKwa origin, mainly from theAkan andEwe, there were also important minorities ofMandé,Gur speakers andKru.^[22]

The Pacific coast was the colonial area with the highest percentage of slave population inNew Granada territory. In the 1778–1780 census it was found that slaves inChocó constituted 39% of the population, 38% inIscuandé, 63% inTumaco, and inRaposo (Modern dayBuenaventura), an extraordinary 70%.^[23]

These slaves destined for mining production were a vital component in thePacific Region. Between 1680 and 1700Popayán was the source of 41% of the gold production inNew Granada.^[24]

The first to oppose the imposition of forced labor by Europeans were indigenous peoples. During the 16th century there were rebellions of thePaeces,Muzos, andYariguis.^[25] The Chinantos rebelled against the town of San Cristóbal, while the Tupes did the same inSanta Marta. However, thePijaos were the most successful in this regard, managing to stop work in the mines ofCartago andBuga, successfully interrupting communication withPopayán andPeru, and killing the Governor of PopayánVasco de Quiroga. The war waged during the first decade of the 17th century would end with a victory for the Europeans, who would be rewarded for their service in the form ofencomiendas.^[26]

African slaves frequently rebelled against their masters, either through the practice ofcimarronaje or through armed rebellion. InSanta Marta in 1530, just five years after the city was built, a slave rebellion destroyed the town. The city would be rebuilt only to suffer a new rebellion in the 1550s.^[27]

Although it was certainly possible for an individual slave to flee their masters and go unnoticed among the free black population of a large city, it was a precarious situation in which the fugitive was at constant risk of discovery; therefore it is natural that many acts of flight were organized and directed towards communities ofMaroons in which they could find security with those of their own class.^[28]

Not all rebellion activities ended in flight, in several cases the threat of revolt was used as a method withincollective bargaining. In 1768 in the province of Santa Marta a group of slaves wounded a foreman whom they accused of ill-treatment, when their master sent a couple of white men to subdue them, the slaves killed one of them. Far from being intimidated, the rebels gave their master an ultimatum, if he did not agree to their demands they would burn down the entire estate and escape to live with the "brave Indians." Without further remedy, the master accepted their demands, swearing to forgive them for the revolt, stopping the mistreatment and agreeing that if the slaves were ever sold this should be done collectively so as not to divide the families. The owner also agreed to provide the workers with a good quantity of tobacco and brandy as compensation for the abuses.^[29] Similar incidents occurred inNeiva in 1773 andCúcuta in 1780, in which the slaves had reached a sort of agreement with theJesuit priests in which their treatment was more similar to that of free peasants in asharecropping, being granted with remuneration for their crops and with holidays. When a new master refused to uphold what the slaves considered theircustomary rights, they did not hesitate to go into open rebellion and demand that the colonial government authorities recognize their rights.^[30]

On the other hand, it is important to recognize that the resistance strategies of the black women enslaved during the colonial period were aimed at confronting colonial power by resorting to judicial demands.^[31]

However, the most famous slave rebellion inNew Granada was undoubtedly that of the slaves ofSan Basilio de Palenque, led byBenkos Biohó. The rebellion was so successful that on August 23, 1691, the king of Spain was forced to issue a certificate ordering the general freedom of the Palenques and their right to land.^[32]

At the end of the 17th century, the colonial authorities tried again to start a great campaign against theMaroon Palenques, but despite succeeding in destroying some villages, the entire campaign turned out to be a failure, since the targeted black communities managed to preserve their freedom and simply moved south.^[28]

Cimarronaje would continue until the 19th century with the abolition of slavery, after which the former slaves would exercise new forms of resistance seeking to retaliate against their former masters: they would roam the fields, tearing down fences, raiding property, and punishing conservatives with their whips. This period was named by the PresidentJosé Hilario López as "The democratic frolics."^[33]

Abolition was a gradual process.Manumission of enslaved individuals occurred throughout the history of the colony, but the abolition of slavery as an institution was not seriously considered until theNapoleonic invasion of Spain, when, beginning in 1809, the question of freedom was raised in the Iberian courts to prevent "slaves from seeking and even achieving it by violent and coercive means".Antonio Villavicencio was a proponent offreedom of wombs, but his views were not heeded by the Spanish crown.^[34]

During thewar of independence of Colombia,Simón Bolívar introduced in 1816 the idea of granting freedom to slaves who participated in the independence cause.^[34] This process was controversial, because the landowners who depended on slaves both for work and social status staunchly opposed the liberation process.^{[citation needed]}

In order to compromise with the demands of the slavers who demanded that their property be respected, José Félix de Restrepo managed to decree in theCongress of Cúcuta the "freedom of wombs", which declared that children born of slaves as of July 21, 1821, would be free. The law also established for the masters the obligation to "Educate, clothe and feed the children [...] but they as a reward will have to compensate the masters of their mothers for the expenses incurred in their upbringing, with their works and services, which they will provide until the age of 18.”^[34] The slave trade was definitively prohibited in 1825.^{[citation needed]}

Although the freedom of young slaves should have started on July 21, 1839, the process was largely delayed by theWar of the Supremes, which was fought from 1839 to 1842. After the war and under pressure of the masters, a new law of May 29, 1842, extended the dependence on slaves for another 7 years through what was called apprenticeship. In other words, the 18-year-old slaves would be presented to the mayors who should have them serve their former master or someone else who could "educate and instruct" them in a trade or profession. In this way slavery was extended, while those who refused to participate were recruited into thenational army.^[34]

The inefficiency of the manumission, as well as the corruption of officials and landowners who continued with the slave trade ignoring the law caused great discontent among the so-called Democratic Societies (liberal associations of artisans). This great political upheaval, coming from both the artisans and the slaves themselves, led PresidentJosé Hilario López to propose absolute freedom. Finally, theColombian Congress passed a law on May 21, 1851, by means of which the slaves would be free as of January 1, 1852, and the masters would be compensated with bonds.^[34]

Even so, in many places the masters refused to let the slaves go in a peaceful way. This led to the Civil War of 1851, which began with an insurrection inCauca andPasto headed by theConservative leaders Manuel Ibáñez andJulio Arboleda with the support of theEcuadorian government. InAntioquia the rebellion broke out at the hands of conservatives led by Eusebio Berrero. The war would end in four months with the liberal victory and the final liberation of the slaves.^[35]

The number of enslaved people declined throughout the republican period until the definitive abolition of the institution:^[34]

• Afro-Colombians
• Slavery in Brazil
• Slavery in Canada
• Slavery in Colonial America
• Slavery in Latin America
• Slavery in New Spain
• Slavery in Cartagena

• Slavery in Colombia
• Colonial Colombia
• Racism in Colombia
• Social history of Colombia

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