Singkawang Hakka
Bahasa Khek Singkawang
山口洋客語 Sân-gú-yòng Hak-ngî(Pha̍k-fa-sṳ)
Pronunciation	/san⁵³.kʰeu²⁴⁻²².i̯oŋ⁵⁵.hak³⁴.ŋi⁵³/
Native to	Indonesia (West Kalimantan)
Region	Singkawang,Pemangkat andSambas
Ethnicity	Singkawang Chinese
Native speakers	103,449 (2012)[1][a]
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Chinese Hakka Hailu dialect Singkawang Hakka
Writing system	Latin script Indonesian alphabet (most common) Pha̍k-fa-sṳ (sporadic) Chinese characters
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
IETF	hak-ID
Regencies and cities in West Kalimantan where Singkawang Hakka is spoken by the majority of the population   Regencies and cities in West Kalimantan where Singkawang Hakka is spoken by a significant minority of the population
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Singkawang Hakka (Chinese:山口洋客語;Pha̍k-fa-sṳ:Sân-gú-yòng Hak-ngî;Indonesian:Bahasa Khek Singkawang) is a variety ofHakka predominantly spoken by theHakka Chinese community in the northwestern part ofWest Kalimantan,Indonesia, particularly in and around theSingkawang region. It originates from the Hakka dialects spoken inGuangdong, China, though it has evolved with some differences influenced by local influences. Singkawang Hakka differs fromPontianak Hakka, which is rooted in theMeixian dialect. In contrast, Singkawang Hakka is based on theHailu dialect, with significant influence from Hopo and Wuhua dialects.^[2][3] Singkawang Hakka is colloquially known asyinghua (硬話) 'hard speech' among the local Chinese community.^[4] In contrast, Pontianak Hakka, spoken in areas south ofBengkayang, includingPontianak,Mempawah Regency, andKubu Raya Regency, is commonly referred to asruanhua (軟話) 'soft speech'. Today, Singkawang Hakka has a wide geographical spread. Besides being used in Singkawang,Pemangkat, andSambas, it is also commonly spoken among the Chinese migrants from Singkawang inJakarta.

Hakka is the predominant language spoken among the Chinese communities in Singkawang, although there are also smallTeochew-speaking communities present.^[5] Additionally, many Hakka in Singkawang are multilingual, fluent inMandarin,Indonesian, and thelocal Malay dialect.Code-switching andcode-mixing are common among the Singkawang Chinese, who frequently alternate between Hakka, Malay, and standard Indonesian. This is especially prevalent in informal settings, such as local markets, where people from various ethnic backgrounds interact.^[1] Additionally, since the majority of Singkawang's population is Hakka, many non-Chinese residents in the area are also able to speak and understand Hakka.

The Hakkas began migrating to the coastal regions of western Borneo in the 17th century. While the majority originated from the interior ofGuangdong (specifically areas aroundMeizhou,Huizhou,Jieyang, and other areas), a smaller number came fromTingzhou in westernFujian.^[6][7] These immigrants brought their language and culture with them. By the late 19th century, there were already immigrants in the Singkawang region of West Kalimantan speaking Hailu Hakka. Additionally, Hopo immigrants fromJiexi had been documented in West Kalimantan as early as the late 18th century.^[8] The Hakka dialect spoken in Singkawang today is likely the result of a historical blending of the Hailu and Hopo dialects, which has endowed it with the distinct characteristics of both varieties.^[8]

From the lateQing dynasty to the early establishment of theRepublic of China, wars and chaos were frequent on theChinese mainland. As a result, many Hakka people, to avoid military conscription and forced labor or to earn a living, were forced to followshuike (水客,suihak), brokers who specifically brought people to Southeast Asia, toMalaya orBangka-Belitung, where they became contract laborers in tin mines. After their contracts ended, many workers moved to the region under the rule of the Sultan of Sambas, particularly to Singkawang and its surroundings, to seek a new life. At that time, a large group of Hopo immigrants arrived and rented land from the local government for farming.^[3] Those with skills or relatives in Singkawang chose to settle and engage in small businesses there, selling cakes or working as laborers. By that time, there were already many traditional medicine shops, bookstores, barbershops, and others. Because many small stalls in the rural areas were owned by Hakka people, to facilitate transactions and blend in with the grassroots community, the tycoons of Singkawang, whetherTeochew orHokkien, were inevitably compelled to learn Hakka. Thus, Hakka became thelingua franca in Singkawang, whileTeochew andHokkien are only spoken at home.^[3]

Most of the Hakkas who migrated to present-day Singkawang came from impoverished backgrounds and were invited by theSultanate of Sambas to work as miners. They formedkongsis (associations) for business purposes, particularly in gold mining, in the interior regions of West Kalimantan. One of the most well-known kongsis in West Kalimantan was theLanfang Kongsi.^[9] Its founder wasLuo Fangbo, in the 18th century. He not only succeeded in establishing kongsis but also became the governor for the Chinese community in West Kalimantan, headquartered in Mandor (about 100 km fromPontianak). During that time, Monterado and Mandor were well-known as centers of gold mining, attracting Chinese people from various ethnic groups. Singkawang, on the other hand, served merely as a trade city and not as a resource-producing area like Monterado and Mandor.^[6]

The "Red Bowl" incident (Indonesian:Mangkok Merah) that occurred at the end of 1967 saw theIndonesian government expelling hundreds of thousands of Hakka Chinese from rural areas, so 99% of this Hakka-speaking exodus group was forced to settle in Singkawang and its surrounding areas. Before the government prohibited Chinese people from entering Indonesia in1949, new arrivals from the Teochew and Hokkien-speaking communities were almost nonexistent.^[3] However, Hakka speakers arrived in large numbers, around 10–20 thousand people, thus increasing the Hakka population in Singkawang. As time passed, the first generation of Teochew, Hokkien, and Hakka speakers became increasingly rare.^[3] They were mostly elderly and rarely gathered together, so communication in their native languages became less frequent. Meanwhile, the second generation, although they initially mastered their mother tongue, found themselves communicating with Hakka in daily life and social interactions.^[3]

The Hakka language in West Kalimantan is divided into two types: thePontianak Hakka, which is more related to theMeixian Hakka dialect, and Singkawang Hakka, which is more related to theLufeng (Hailu) Hakka dialect. These two varieties differ slightly in tone, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The areas that use the Meixian Hakka dialect includePontianak,Sekadau,Sintang,Sanggau, andMempawah. Meanwhile, the areas that use the Lufeng Hakka accent include Singkawang, Sungai Duri,Sambas, andPemangkat.^[10] In areas with a significant Hakka population, non-Chinese residents also understand and speak Singkawang Hakka. ManyMalays,Dayak, and evenJavanese residents are proficient in Hakka and actively use it to communicate with the Chinese community. Meanwhile, many elderly Chinese residents are either unable to speak or are less fluent in languages other than Hakka.^[11] Today, Singkawang Hakka is spoken widely beyond Singkawang, Pemangkat, and Sambas, extending to the Chinese business community inJakarta, specifically inwestern Jakarta, where many migrants from Singkawang have settled.^[2]

Hakka is widely spoken throughout Singkawang, with estimates suggesting that over 60% of the local population use it in their daily conversations.^[12] Many Chinese in Singkawang, in addition to Hakka, are also fluent inSambas Malay, the local Malay dialect.Code-switching orcode-mixing between Hakka and Sambas Malay is very common, particularly when conversing with non-Chinese individuals.^[1] In addition, most elders in Singkawang could speak both Hakka andMandarin, as they learned the latter when educated in Chinese language schools before they were closed during theNew Order.^[13] Few also spokeTeochew or otherChinese dialects. Currently, following the lifting of the ban on learning Chinese, many young people have enrolled in Chinese schools where they are taught to speak and read Mandarin. Most Chinese residents, especially the younger generations are also fluent in standardIndonesian, the national language. The usage of Indonesian is typically limited to formal settings, such as government interactions or educational environments, where formal Indonesian is preferred.^[14] Nonetheless, there is currently a growing trend in the use of the Hakka in official communications in Singkawang. Mayors and government officials frequently incorporate Hakka in various official functions, including meetings, public addresses, and interactions with the local community.^[12]

There is a slight difference in the Hakka dialects spoken in Singkawang city proper, Sambas, Pemangkat, and Bengkayang, primarily in their phonological features and pronunciations.^[15]

The Singkawang Hakka dialect has 21 initials, including onezero initial [∅].^[16] The list is as follows:

Notes:

• The zero initial, like in 鴨 (IPA: /ap³⁴/), is not listed in the table above.

Singkawang Hakka features fivevowel phonemes:i,e,a,o, andu. Additionally, it includes one mediali, three open nasal codas (-m,-n,-ŋ), and three checked codas (-p,-t,-k). This yields eight open finals, seven vocalic finals, twenty nasal finals, seventeen stop finals, and two syllabic nasals. In total, there are 54 rimes.^[17]

In Singkawang Hakka, there are a total of sixtones.^[18] The tones and their characteristics are shown in the table below:

The pronunciation of a single character is referred to as the base tone (本調). However, when two or more characters are combined, tone changes occur, resulting in what is calledtone sandhi (變調). Tone sandhi can be categorized into two-character consecutive tone sandhi and tone sandhi involving three or more characters.^[19] For example, the word /kieu˨²⁴/ (狗) 'dog' is pronounced with a rising tone [˨˦] (24). However, when combined with another syllable, such as /ŋiuk⁵/ (肉) 'meat', it becomes /kieu²⁴⁻²².ŋiuk⁵/ (狗肉) 'dog meat', where the original word is now pronounced with a low tone [˨] (22).^[19] Another example is the word /t͡ʃuk˧˦/ (竹) 'bamboo', which is pronounced with a high checked tone [˧˦] (34) when it stands alone. However, when combined with another word, such as /ʒiap⁵/ (葉) 'leaf', it becomes /t͡ʃuk³⁴⁻³.ʒiap⁵/ (竹葉) 'bamboo leaf', where the original word is now pronounced with a mid-level tone [˧] (3).

The combinations of tone sandhi in Singkawang Hakka can be summarized in the following rules:^[20]

• Tone [˥˧] 53 (yingping) and tone [˥˥] 55 (yangping) change to tone [˧] 33 when followed by any syllables, except for tone [˧˩] 31 (yinqu), tone [˧˦] 34 (yinru), or tone [˥] 5 (yangru), where no change occurs.
• Tone [˨˦] 24 (shangsheng) always changes to tone [˨] 22 regardless of the tone of the following syllables.
• Tone [˧˩] 31 (yinqu) and tone [˥] 5 (yangru) do not undergo tone sandhi.
• Tone [˧˦] 34 (yinru) changes to tone [˧] 3 when followed by any syllables.

Singkawang Hakka mainly shares similarities in phonology, rhyme, and tone withHailu Hakka as spoken inmainland China andTaiwan. However, it also exhibits several notable differences that set it apart, due to influences from other Hakka dialects as well as other languages.^[21]

• Singkawang Hakka preserves many of the consonant features ofMiddle Chinese. In contrast, the Meixian and Sixian dialects have undergone aretroflex stage, while the Wuhua dialect is in the process of change.
• Some sounds in Singkawang Hakka are pronounced with an aspirated velar stop (/kʰ-/), such as in words like "吸" (inhale), "霍" (sudden), "藿" (herb), "況" (situation), "潰" (collapse), "狹" (narrow), and "核" (kernel). In the Meixian, Sixian, and Hailu dialects, these sounds have shifted to /h-/ or /f-/, likely under the influence ofCantonese.
• Theb initial is rare in other Hakka dialects but is widespread in Singkawang Hakka, where thev initial has completely transformed intob. This change may also be influenced byIndonesian, and a similar shift can be seen in theYunlin Hakka dialect in Taiwan, influenced byTaiwanese Hokkien.
• Words like "徙" (to migrate) retain the older "-ai" ending, while others have shifted to the front tongue vowel "-i," resulting in a contrast between the two forms (-ai and -i). This distinction is absent in Meixian and Sixian dialects, where the finals have shifted to more centralized vowels due to changes in the initial consonants.
• The contrast between "-o" and "-a" in specific tone categories remains intact in Singkawang Hakka. For example, words like "果" (fruit) and "假" (fake) clearly demonstrate this contrast. While some influence from the Meixian dialect has caused partial merging of tones, the distinction remains clear.
• In Singkawang Hakka, theu medial, which is typically preserved in Hakka, exhibits a unique pattern. For example, in words where theu medial is often lost after labial consonants in other dialects, Singkawang Hakka retains it. However, after velar consonants, theu medial has disappeared, resulting in a more open vowel sound.

The majority of the Hakka people in Singkawang come from Hopo inJiexi. This tonal system, which is used by most people, consists of six tones:yinping (陰平),yangping (陽平),shangsheng (上聲),yinqu (陰去),yinru (陰入), andyangru (陽入).^[22] The most distinctive feature in Singkawang Hakka's tonal system is that theyangqu tone (陽去) is categorized as ashangsheng tone, which is different fromMeixian Hakka, where all voiceless tones revert to the departing tone. As a result, the range of theshangsheng tone is broader. Additionally, Meixian Hakka speakers still retain theyangqu tone with a tonal value of 22 in a small number of cases, which is closer to the tonal system ofLuhe Hakka.^[22] Below is a comparative table of the tones in various Hakka dialects:

Due to the close contact between the Singkawang Hakka andIndonesian, and the forced education in Indonesian for the localChinese populationafter the 1960s, the vocabulary of Singkawang Hakka has been influenced by many local Indonesian words, making it significantly different from the Hakka dialects spoken in mainland China and Taiwan. As early as the 17th and 18th centuries, the Hakka people began to form a large presence inBorneo and started cultivating land there.^[23] With frequent interactions between the Hakka people and the local dialect ofMalays, linguistic and cultural exchanges were inevitable.^[23] Many words were directly translated or borrowed from Malay, and also Indonesian which is a variety of Malay. Due to the long history of borrowing, Singkawang Hakka speakers now regards these words as part of the Hakka language, creating the unique expressions found in the region today. Additionally, due to progress and development, many new things emerged and were given different names, contributing to the unique terms in the Singkawang Hakka. In general, the vocabulary of Singkawang Hakka is highly localized. Some terms are only heard locally, while not used in mainland China or Taiwan'sHakka-speaking areas, or they are used with different meanings in other Hakka-speaking regions.^[23]

One notable characteristic of the Hakka dialect in Singkawang is its influence from bothTeochew, one of the largestChinese varieties spoken in West Kalimantan after Hakka, andIndonesian, the national language.^[24] For example, in daily life, Singkawang Hakka has incorporated several Teochew words. For instance, the word for "fatigue" is pronounced /kʰoi˥/ inSixian Hakka and /tʰiam˨˦/ inHailu Hakka, but in Singkawang, it is pronounced /ho˥t/, borrowed from Teochew /hek˥/. Similarly, Indonesian has contributed loanwords, such as "potato," which is pronounced /ma˥˧.lin˩.su˩/ in Sixian Hakka and /ma˥˧.lin˥.su˥/ in Hailu Hakka, but /kan˥.tang˥˧/ in Singkawang, derived from the Indonesian wordkentang. There are also several borrowed words fromCantonese, such as /tʰoŋ˥˧/ meaning "to slaughter," which is derived from the Cantonese word 劏 /tʰɔŋ˥˧/.^[25] This phenomenon of lexical borrowing is increasingly prevalent in Indonesian Hakka-speaking communities.^[24]

The lexicon of Singkawang Hakka is predominantly derived fromHailu Hakka, but it has also incorporated loanwords from other Hakka dialects, as well as fromTeochew,Cantonese, andIndonesian.^[25]

Since some of the Hakka people in Singkawang are descendants of immigrants fromMeixian inmainland China, Singkawang Hakka has absorbed certain loanwords fromMeixian Hakka, although the pronunciation has been influenced by Hailu Hakka. Nevertheless, Singkawang Hakka still retains many vocabulary features of Meixian Hakka to this day.^[26] Below are some examples of loanwords in Singkawang Hakka that are absorbed from Meixian Hakka:

Due to the close proximity between theChaoshan region and Hakka-speaking areas, frequent interactions between the two populations have facilitated the use ofTeochew in easternGuangdong. The Hakka communities in Haifeng, Lufeng, Jiexi, and Raoping have been notably impacted by contact with Teochew, leading to the adoption of several loanwords into their language. InWest Kalimantan, both Hakka and Teochew are prominent languages within the Chinese community. Consequently, West Kalimantan Hakka has significantly absorbed loanwords from Teochew.^[28] Below are examples of Teochew loanwords that have been incorporated into Singkawang Hakka:

A small number of words in Singkawang Hakka are directly borrowed fromCantonese. It is speculated that when the Singkawang Hakka people lived in their original homeland on the mainland, they frequently interacted withCantonese-speaking people in Guangdong. Due to this linguistic contact, Cantonese influenced their speech, leading to the borrowing of some Cantonese vocabulary into their Hakka language.^[28] Below are examples of Cantonese loanwords that have been incorporated into Singkawang Hakka:

Due to the status ofIndonesian as the national language, Singkawang Hakka speakers have incorporated several Indonesian words into their daily conversations. This borrowing primarily occurs due to the absence of equivalent terms in Hakka, or because of local objects and newly coined terms in Indonesia. As a result of ongoing language contact and interaction, the integration of Indonesian into Hakka is inevitable and increasingly common.^[29] Below is a list of Indonesian loanwords frequently used by locals in their everyday lives:

Below are some examples of commonly used Singkawang Hakka words and sentences:

Due to the prohibition of learning Chinese during theNew Order era, Singkawang Hakka, along with otherChinese varieties spoken in the Indonesia, is now rarely written. Currently, most Hakka Chinese people in West Kalimantan are no longer able to read or write in Hakka but can only understand and speak the language.^[30] At present, there are very few Hakka speakers can writeChinese characters, typically elderly individuals who learned it in Chinese schools in the 1960s before it was closed down by the Indonesian government.^[31] With the rise of social media, more Singkawang Hakka speakers are communicating online with each other, mixing Hakka and Indonesian using theLatin alphabet, which follows theIndonesian orthography.

• Pontianak Hakka
• Hakka people
• Hakka culture
• Hailu dialect
• Taiwanese Hakka
• Sixian dialect
• Meixian dialect

• Huang, Hui-chen (2008).印尼山口洋客家話研究 [Study of Hakka in Singkawang, Indonesia](PDF) (Master's thesis) (in Chinese).National Central University. Retrieved11 September 2019.
• Liang, Hsin-yu (2007).印尼西加地區海陸客語接觸研究 [Language Contact and Change of Lu-Fung Hakka Spoken in West Kalimantan, Indonesia] (Master's thesis) (in Chinese).Fu Jen Catholic University.
• Schaank, S. H. (1897).Het Loeh-foeng-dialect (in Dutch). Leiden: E.J. Brill.ISBN 978-90-04-59928-4.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• Tanggok, M. Ikhsan (2017).Agama dan kebudayaan orang Hakka di Singkawang: memuja leluhur dan menanti datangnya rejeki [Religion and Culture of the Hakka People in Singkawang] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas.ISBN 978-602-412-173-0.

• Languages of Indonesia
• Hakka Chinese
• Varieties of Chinese

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