TheSinagua were apre-Columbian culture that occupied a large area in centralArizona from theLittle Colorado River, nearFlagstaff, to theVerde River, nearSedona, including theVerde Valley, area aroundSan Francisco Mountain, and significant portions of theMogollon Rim country,[1][2] between approximately 500 and 1425 CE.
Since fully developed Sinagua sites emerged in central Arizona around 650 CE, it is believed they migrated from east-central Arizona, possibly emerging from theMogollon culture.[3]
The nameSinagua was coined in 1939 byarchaeologist Harold S. Colton,[3][4] founder of theMuseum of Northern Arizona, from the Spanish wordssin meaning "without" andagua meaning "water",[4] referring to the name originally given by Spanish explorers to theSan Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff, the "Sierra Sin Agua". The name reflects the surprise the Spanish felt that such large mountains did not have perennial rivers flowing from them, as is common in Spain.
Colton also distinguished between two different Sinagua cultures. The Northern Sinagua were loosely centered in the highlands around Flagstaff, withWalnut Canyon National Monument,Wupatki National Monument, andElden Pueblo the best-known publicly accessible sites. The Southern Sinagua inhabited lower elevations across the Verde Valley of central Arizona;Montezuma Castle National Monument,Montezuma Well,Tuzigoot National Monument,Palatki andHonanki Archaeological Sites, and theV Bar V Heritage Site are notable localities open to the public.
| North Sinagua | Dates | Southern Sinagua | Dates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cinder Park | 650–750 CE | Hackberry | 650–800 CE |
| Sunset | 700–900 | Cloverleaf | 800–900 |
| Rio de Flag | 900–1066 | Camp Verde | 900–1150 |
| Angell-Winona | 1066–1100 | ||
| Padre | 1100–1150 | 1100–1150 | |
| Elden Pueblo | 1150–1250 | Honanki | 1150–1300 |
| Turkey Hill site | 1250–1300 | ||
| Clear Creek | 1300–1400 | Tuzigoot | 1300–1400[3] |
The Sinagua economy was based on a combination ofhunter-gatherer foraging andsubsistence agriculture. They hunted a variety of game from antelope, bear, rabbit, to turtles and ducks.[4]
They usedamaranth,ricegrass, cactus fruit,beeweed flowers, andcattails for flour. Sunflowers,hackberry fruit, yucca, wild grapes, walnuts,pine nuts, and acorns were also important sources of food.[4]
Sinagua farmers cultivatedmaize beginning in the eighth century. They learned irrigation techniques from their southernHohokam neighbors and added beans and squash to their crops.[4] The 1064 and 1066 eruptions ofSunset Crater covered the area in ash, which greatly enriched the soil for farming.[1][5]
Around 700 CE, they became active in the region's long-distance trade which reached theGulf of California andMesoamerica. They traded their baskets and woven cotton cloth for copper,macaws, marine shells, salt, and rare pigments.[2][4]
Early Sinagua sites consist mostly of largepit houses, similar to the ones built by theHohokam people of southern Arizona, and wooden buildings.[1] Later structures more closely resemble thePueblo architecture practiced by other contemporaneouscultural groups occupying thesouthwestern United States.
Besides ceremonialkivas, their pueblos had large "community rooms" and some featured ballcourts and walled courtyards, similar to those of theHohokam culture.[1][2][3]
The last known evidence of Sinagua occupation for any site comes fromMontezuma Castle, a limestonecliff dwelling byBeaver Creek in Verde Valley. This 65-room structure was believed to be built by Sinagua women between 1100 and 1350 CE.[4]
Known as Alameda Brown Ware, their plain pottery was built using thepaddle-and-anvil method. Their clay was grey or brown,tempered with crushed potsherds, and painted with buff, brown, and red slips.[1]
They carved with imported red argillate.[2]
Sinagua peoples left the Verde Valley by the early 15th century.[4] Like other pre-Columbian cultures in the southwest, the Sinagua apparently abandoned their permanent settlements around this time, though the precise reasons for such a large-scale abandonment are not yet known;resource depletion, drought, and clashes with the newly arrivedYavapai people have been suggested.[4]
Several contemporaryHopi clans trace their ancestry to immigrants from the Sinagua culture, who they believe left the Verde Valley for religious reasons.Pima,Tohono O'odham,Yavapai, andZuni also potentially have cultural, linguistic, and historical connections to the Sinagua people.[6]
Melanie O'Brien, acting manager of the NationalNAGPRA Program, writes of Montezuma Castle:
Evidence demonstrating continuity between the people of the Verde Valley during A.D. 1125–1425 and the Hopi Tribe includes archaeological, anthropological, linguistic, folkloric, and oral traditions. Ceramic vessels made only on the Hopi mesas are found at the sites and are similar to items made by historic and modern Hopi people. Additionally, plain woven and painted textiles, coiled basketry, and woven matting are similar to items made and used by modern Hopi people. Living Hopi clan members also have ancestral names and traditional stories about specific events and people at each site.[6]
