Range of Silesian on a map ofEast-Central Europe (marked asG1 andG2, in southern Poland and the eastern Czech Republic).
Distribution area of the Silesian language% of population inOpole andSilesian Voivodeships using Silesian on daily basis according to2021 Polish censusA Silesian speaker, recorded in Poland
Silesian,[a] occasionally calledUpper Silesian, is anethnolect[4][5] of theLechitic group spoken by people inUpper Silesia. Its vocabulary was significantly influenced byCentral German due to the existence of numerousSilesian German speakers in the area prior to World War II and after.[6] The first mentions of Silesian as a distinctlect date back to the16th century, and the first literature with Silesian characteristics to the17th century.[7]
Linguistic distinctiveness of Silesian has long been a topic of discussion among Poland'slinguists, especially after all of Upper Silesia was included within the Polish borders following World War II.[8] Some regard it as one of thefour major dialects ofPolish,[9][10][11][12] while others classify it as a separate regional language, distinct from Polish.[4][13][14] According to the official data from the2021 Polish census, 467 145 people use Silesian on daily basis .[15] Internationally, Silesian has been fully recognized as a language since 2007, when it was accorded theISO 639-3 registration codeszl.[16]
Silesian speakers currently live in the region ofUpper Silesia, which is split between southwestern Poland and the northeasternCzech Republic. At present Silesian is commonly spoken in the area between the historical border of Silesia on the east and a line fromSyców toPrudnik on the west as well as in theRawicz area.
Until 1945, Silesian was also spoken in enclaves inLower Silesia, where the majority spokeLower Silesian, a variety ofCentral German. The German-speaking population was either evacuated en masse by German forces towards the end of the war or deported by the new administration upon the Polish annexation of the SilesianRecovered Territories after its end. BeforeWorld War II, mostSlavic-language speakers also knew German and, at least in eastern Upper Silesia, many German speakers were acquainted with Slavic Silesian.
According to the lastofficial census in Poland in 2021, about 460,000[2] people declared Silesian as theirnative language, whereas in thecountry's census of 2011, the figure was about 510,000.[20] In the censuses in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, nearly 527,000 people declaredSilesian nationality; Upper Silesia has almost five million inhabitants, with the vast majority speaking Polish in the Polish part and declaring themselves to be Poles and the vast majority speaking Czech in the Czech part and declaring themselves to be Czechs.[20][21][22][23]
Although the morphological differences between Silesian and Polish have been researched extensively, other grammatical differences have not been studied in depth.
A notable difference is in question-forming. In standard Polish, questions which do not containinterrogative words are formed either by using intonation or the interrogative particleczy. In Silesian, questions which do not contain interrogative words are formed by using intonation (with a markedly different intonation pattern than in Polish) or inversion (e.g.Je to na karcie?); there is no interrogative particle.
According toJan Miodek, standard Polish has always been used by Upper Silesians as a language of prayers.[24]TheLord's Prayer in Silesian, Polish, Czech, and English:
Fatrze nŏsz, kery jeżeś we niebie, bydź poświyncōne miano Twoje. Przińdź krōlestwo Twoje, bydź wola Twoja, jako we niebie, tak tyż na ziymi. Chlyb nŏsz kŏżdodziynny dej nōm dzisiŏk. A ôdpuś nōm nasze winy, jako a my ôdpuszczōmy naszym winnikōm. A niy wōdź nŏs na pokuszyniy, nale zbŏw nŏs ôde złygo. Amyn.
Ojcze nasz, któryś jest w niebie, święć się imię Twoje, przyjdź królestwo Twoje, bądź wola Twoja jako w niebie tak i na ziemi. Chleba naszego powszedniego daj nam dzisiaj. I odpuść nam nasze winy, jako i my odpuszczamy naszym winowajcom. I nie wódź nas na pokuszenie, ale nas zbaw od złego. Amen.
Otče náš, jenž jsi na nebesích, posvěť se jméno Tvé Přijď království Tvé. Buď vůle Tvá, jako v nebi, tak i na zemi. Chléb náš vezdejší dej nám dnes A odpusť nám naše viny, jako i my odpouštíme naším viníkům a neuveď nás v pokušení, ale zbav nás od zlého. Amen.
Otče náš, ktorý si na nebesiach, posväť sa meno tvoje, príď kráľovstvo tvoje, buď vôľa tvoja ako v nebi, tak i na zemi. Chlieb náš každodenný daj nám dnes a odpusť nám naše viny, ako aj my odpúšťame svojim vinníkom, a neuveď nás do pokušenia, ale zbav nás zlého. Amen.
Our Father who art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day ourdaily bread, and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen.
Map showing the distribution of the Silesian dialects
The Silesian language consists of a number of dialects, broadly classified into three groups; northern, central and southern.[26] Per Alfred Zaręba, these dialects are further divided as follows:
Historically, the dialectal distribution also included theChwalim dialect, part of theLower Silesian dialect group. This dialect formed the northernmost boundary of the Silesian language and influenced nearbynew mixed dialects until its extinction in the 20th century.[26]
Grave inscription at a Lutheran cemetery inStřítež nearČeský Těšín. The inscription, which says "Rest in Peace", is in the Cieszyn Silesian dialect.Inscription on a 19th-century wayside cross inBogucice, a district ofKatowice: "Founders of this cross, landowners from the municipality of Bogucice, 1887". In modern Standard Silesian it would be written as follows:Fundatorzi tego krziża / Posiedziciele grōntu z gminy boguckijThe Silesian language in public space: a banner at the 2022 gaypride inKatowice. "We want Silesia, where every boy can take a vow to his chosen one in the Silesian language."The Silesian language in public space: a warning sign "Watch for trams" on the sidewalk inChorzówGoral Silesian lect and Czech inCieszyn, Poland. The text notifies readers that people under the age of 18 will not be served alcohol.
Opinions are divided amonglinguists regarding whether Silesian is a distinct language, a dialect of Polish, or, in the case ofLach, a variety of Czech. The issue can be contentious, because some Silesians consider themselves to be a distinct nationality within Poland. When Czechs, Poles, and Germans each made claims to substantial parts of Silesia as constituting an integral part of their respectivenation-states in the 19th and 20th centuries, the language of Slavic-speaking Silesians became politicized.
Slavicist of Upper Silesian extraction,Rudolf Abicht, who worked at the University of Breslau and proposed an early standardization of theBelarusian language, clearly recognized that standardizing and making Silesian into a language is a socio-political process. In 1920, he expressed his opinion on the subject in an extensive essay on the 'Upper Silesian language question.'[27][28]
Some, likeÓndra Łysohorsky (a poet and author inCzechoslovakia), saw theSilesians as their own distinct people, which culminated in his effort to create aliterary standard which he called the "Lachian language". Silesian inhabitants supporting the cause of each of these ethnic groups had their own robust network of supporters across Silesia's political borders which shifted over the course of the 20th century prior to the large-scaleethnic cleansing in the aftermath ofWorld War II.
Some linguists from Poland, such as Jolanta Tambor,[30][full citation needed] Juan Lajo,[31][full citation needed]Tomasz Wicherkiewicz,[32][full citation needed] philosopher Jerzy Dadaczyński,[33][full citation needed] sociologist Elżbieta Anna Sekuła,[34][full citation needed] and sociolinguistTomasz Kamusella,[35][36] support its status as a language. According to Stanisław Rospond, it is impossible to classify Silesian as a dialect of the contemporary Polish language because he considers it to be descended fromOld Polish.[37][original research?] According to Kamusella, "between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s, several popular Silesian-Polish dictionaries were published, some of which were quite extensive. Initially, they referred to Silesian as a gwara (dialect) but then increasingly termed it a language."[38]
Other Polish linguists, such asJan Miodek andEdward Polański, do not support its status as a language.[citation needed] Jan Miodek andDorota Simonides, both of Silesian origin, prefer to see the preservation of the entire range of Silesian dialects rather thanstandardization.[39]The German linguistReinhold Olesch was greatly interested in the "Polish vernaculars" of Upper Silesia and other Slavicvarieties such asKashubian andPolabian.[40][41][42][43] Miodek argues that "there is no major grammatical feature within Silesian, which would not function simultaneously in the dialects of Lesser Poland or Greater Poland, Mazovian or Kashubian".[44]
The United States Immigration Commission in 1911 classified it as one of the dialects of Polish.[45][46] In their respective surveys of Slavic languages, most linguists writing in English, such as Alexander M. Schenker,[47] Robert A. Rothstein,[48] and Roland Sussex and Paul Cubberley[49] list Silesian as a dialect of Polish, as doesEncyclopædia Britannica.[50] On the question of whether Silesian is a separate Slavic language,Gerd Hentschel wrote that "Silesian ... can thus ... without doubt be described as a dialect of Polish" ("Das Schlesische ... kann somit ... ohne Zweifel als Dialekt des Polnischen beschrieben werden").[51][52][53]
In contrast, Silesian linguistHenryk Jaroszewicz, who codified Silesian, argues that Silesian constitutes a separate language, and bases his view on the need to prioritize extralinguistic factors of the intralinguistic ones:
The narrative discussed above, according to which the Silesian ethnolect is currently a dialect of the Polish language, is not acceptable in the light of contemporary linguistic theories. The basic mistake committed by the quoted researchers - J. Miodek, J. Wronicz or A. Markowski - is to adhere to the view that the status of certain linguistic codes can be determined, solely on the basis of facts of intra-linguistic nature: genetic or structural. Modern linguistics, however, proved as early as the 1960s that there are no intralinguistic criteria that would ‘stand the more serious test of verification’ and unquestionably allow one to separate languages from dialects (Haugen 1980: 169). This is because it is not intralinguistic properties, but extralinguistic features that have a decisive influence on the final arrangement of linguistic typologies. Among these, the self-consciousness of the users, ‘the will of the users and the respect for this will expressed by their fellow citizens’ (Czesak 2008a: 22), plays a key role, secondarily the steps taken by a given community to codify its own ethnolect.[44]
Polish linguistKazimierz Polański wrote: "The problem of distinguishing languages from dialects is not a purely linguistic problem, it is rather a sociological, psychological problem. To a certain extent, it is also political. It is not possible to establish linguistic criteria to distinguish between a language and a dialect. The main issue here is linguistic awareness, which causes a linguistic community to mature at a certain point and decide to become independent: it develops a dictionary of its language, codifies the rules of its use, its spelling, choice of alphabet, etc. From this point onwards, it is possible to speak of a separate language. From this point onwards, it is possible to speak of a distinct language."[54]
Among the linguists who argue that Silesian is a language,Witold Mańczak wrote that "the defining feature between ethnolects is lexical, not grammatical, convergence".[55] In this context, Silesian has a lexical similarity of 53% with Polish;[44] similarly,English language was evaluated to have a lexical similarity of 60% with the German language.[56] Percentages higher than 85% usually indicate that the two languages being compared are likely to be related dialects.[57]
In Czechia, disagreement exists concerning theLach dialects which rose to prominence thanks toÓndra Łysohorsky and his translatorEwald Osers.[58] While some have considered it a separate language, most now view Lach as a dialect of Czech.[59][60][61]
An advertisement for theCanal+ TV channel at a bus stop inChorzów in the Silesian language written in the Steuer spelling. The translation is "Watch Ruch (Chorzów) matches on Canal+"
There have been a number of attempts at codifying the language spoken by Slavophones in Silesia. Probably the most well-known was undertaken by Óndra Łysohorsky when codifying theLachian dialects in creating the Lachian literary language in the early 20th century.
Ślabikŏrzowy szrajbōnek is the relatively newalphabet created by thePro Loquela Silesiana organization to reflect the sounds of all Silesian dialects. It was approved by Silesian organizations affiliated inRada Górnośląska.Ubuntu translation is in this alphabet[63] as is some of theSilesian Wikipedia, although some of it is in Steuer's alphabet. It is used in a few books, including the Silesianalphabet book.[64]
One of the firstalphabets created specifically for Silesian wasSteuer's Silesian alphabet, created in theInterwar period and used byFeliks Steuer for his poems in Silesian. The alphabet consists of 30graphemes and eightdigraphs:
Silesian's phonetic alphabet replaces the digraphs with single letters (Sz withŠ, etc.) and does not include the letterŁ, whose sound can be represented phonetically withU. It is therefore the alphabet that contains the fewest letters. Although it is the most phonetically logical, it did not become popular with Silesian organizations, with the argument that it contains too manycaron diacritics and hence resembles theCzech alphabet. Large parts of the Silesian Wikipedia, however, are written in Silesian's phonetic alphabet.
Sometimes other alphabets are also used, such as the "Tadzikowy muster" (for theNational Dictation Contest of the Silesian language) or the Polish alphabet, but writing in this alphabet is problematic as it does not allow for the differentiation and representation of all Silesian sounds.[64]
Examples of books in Silesian, e.g. translations ofThe Hobbit,The Little Prince orA Christmas CarolBilingual sign inKatowice (Katowicy): PolishKwiaciarnia ("florist") and SilesianBlumy i Geszynki ("flowers and gifts"). The latter also exemplifies the Germanisms in Silesian (cf. GermanBlumen und Geschenke).
In 2003, the National Publishing Company of Silesia (Narodowa Oficyna Śląska) commenced operations.[72] This publisher was founded by the Alliance of the People of the Silesian Nation (Związek Ludności Narodowości Śląskiej) and it prints books about Silesia and books in Silesian language.
In July 2007, the Slavic Silesian language was given theISO 639-3 codeszl.[73]
On 6 September 2007, 23 politicians of thePolish parliament made a statement about a new law to give Silesian the official status of aregional language.[74]
On 7 September 2007, the MPs of Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland, League of Polish Families, People's National Movement and the Polish People's Party submitted a bill recognizing Silesian as a regional language in Poland.[17] The bill did not pass because the Sejm was dissolved before it could be voted on, triggering a snap election.[18]
The first official NationalDictation Contest of the Silesian language (Ogólnopolskie Dyktando Języka Śląskiego) took place in August 2007. In dictation as many as 10 forms of writing systems and orthography have been accepted.[75][76]
On 30 January 2008 and in June 2008, two organizations promoting Silesian language were established:Pro Loquela Silesiana andTôwarzistwo Piastowaniô Ślónskij Môwy "Danga".[77]
On 30 June 2008 in the edifice of theSilesian Parliament inKatowice, a conference took place on the status of the Silesian language. This conference was a forum for politicians, linguists, representatives of interested organizations and persons who deal with the Silesian language. The conference was titled "Silesian – Still a Dialect or Already a Language?" (Śląsko godka – jeszcze gwara czy jednak już język?).[80]
In 2012, theMinistry of Administration and Digitization registered the Silesian language in Annex 1 to the Regulation on the state register of geographical names;[81] however, in a November 2013 amendment to the regulation, Silesian is not included.[82]
On 26 April 2024, theSejm voted 236-186 with five abstentions to recognise Silesian as a regional language.[83][84][85] On 29 May 2024, PresidentAndrzej Duda vetoed the bill.[19]
On 24 May 2024, the book"Myśli ukryte" byKarol Gwóźdź was translated from the original Silesian language intoUkrainian, a landmark event for Silesian culture as the first translation of a Silesian-language publication into a foreign language.[86][87]
A waste container with the inscription in SilesianCzerwony Hasiok (red trash can)
An advertising billboard of Galeria Katowicka shopping mall that means "Black Friday. Buy something and get a bag with a graphic designed by Roobens"
A promotional poster of the ZTZ Rybnik bus company with the phraseGryfnyj rajzy po Rybniku, which means "Have a nice trip aroundRybnik"
An advertising billboard in Silesian which means"True comfort in the cinema returns toKatowice! Helios"
Public transport bus in Rybnik with the inscription "Jeżech na sztrom" (I'm electric)
"Leave the empty glasses here so there is no mess" as a cartoon speech ofJerzy Ziętek (former general and governor of Katowice) in Rebel Garden Café inChorzów
Norbert Morciniec. 1989.Zum Wortgut deutscher Herkunft in den polnischen Dialekten Schlesiens. Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, Bd. 83, Heft 3 (in German)
Tomasz Kamusella and Motoki Nomachi. 2014. The Long Shadow of Borders: The Cases of Kashubian and Silesian in Poland (pp 35–60).The Eurasia Border Review. Vol 5, No 2, Fall.[91]
Review: Mark Brüggemann. 2013. Ślōnsko godka. The Silesian language[92]
Review: Michael Moser (uk). 2013.Zeitschrift für Slawistik (pp 118–119). Vol 58, No 1. Potsdam: Universität Potsdam.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2014.Warszawa wie lepiej Ślązaków nie ma. O dyskryminacji i języku śląskim [Warsaw Knows Better – The Silesians Don't Exist: On Discrimination and the Silesian Language]. Zabrze, Poland: NOS, 174 pp.ISBN9788360540213.
Review:Michael Mose [uk]. 2013.Zeitschrift für Slawistik (pp 118–119). Vol 58, No 1. Potsdam: Universität Potsdam.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2013. The Silesian Language in the Early 21st Century: A Speech Community on the Rollercoaster of Politics (pp 1–35).Die Welt der Slaven. Vol 58, No 1.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2011. Silesian in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: A Language Caught in the Net of Conflicting Nationalisms, Politics, and Identities (pp 769–789). 2011.Nationalities Papers. No 5.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2009. Échanges de paroles ou de coups en Haute-Silésie: la langue comme 'lieu' de contacts et de luttes interculturels [Exchange of Words or Blows in Upper Silesia: Language as a "Place" of Contacts and Intercultural Struggles] (pp 133–152).Cultures d'Europe centrale. No 8: Lieux communs de la multiculturalité urbaine en Europe centrale, ed by Delphine Bechtel and Xavier Galmiche. Paris: CIRCE.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2007.Uwag kilka o dyskryminacji Ślązaków i Niemców górnośląskich w postkomunistycznej Polsce [A Few Remarks on the Discrimination of the Silesians and Upper Silesia's Germans in Postcommunist Poland]. Zabrze, Poland: NOS, 28 pp. ISBN978-83-60540-68-8.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2006.Schlonzsko: Horní Slezsko, Oberschlesien, Górny Śląsk. Esej o regionie i jego mieszkańcach [Schlonzsko: Upper Silesia. An Essay on the Region and Its Inhabitants] (2nd, corrected and enlarged edition). Zabrze, Poland: NOS, 148 pp. ISBN978-83-60540-51-0.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2009. Codzienność komunikacyjno-językowa na obszarze historycznego Górnego Śląska [The Everyday Language Use in Historical Upper Silesia] (pp 126–156). In: Robert Traba, ed.Akulturacja/asymilacja na pograniczach kulturowych Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej w XIX i XX wieku [Acculturation/Assimilation in the Cultural Borderlands of East-Central Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries] (vol 1: Stereotypy i pamięć [Stereotypes and memory]). Warsaw: Instytut Studiów Politycznych PAN and Niemiecki Instytut Historyczny.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2009. Czy śląszczyzna jest językiem? Spojrzenie socjolingwistyczne [Is Silesian a Language? A Sociolinguistic View] (pp 27–35). In: Andrzej Roczniok, ed.Śląsko godka – jeszcze gwara czy jednak już język? / Ślōnsko godko – mundart jeszcze eli już jednak szpracha. Zabrze: NOŚ.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2006.Schlonzska mowa. Język, Górny Śląsk i nacjonalizm (Vol II) [Silesia and Language: Language, Upper Silesia and Nationalism, a collection of articles on various social, political and historical aspects of language use in Upper Silesia]. Zabrze, Poland: NOS, 151 pp. ISBN83-919589-2-2.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2005.Schlonzska mowa. Język, Górny Śląsk i nacjonalizm (Vol I) [Silesia and Language: Language, Upper Silesia and Nationalism, a collection of articles on various social, political and historical aspects of language use in Upper Silesia]. Zabrze, Poland: NOS, 187 pp. ISBN83-919589-2-2.
Review: Kai Struve. 2007. Recenzyjo Instituta Herdera [Herder-Institute’s Review] (pp 26–27).Ślůnsko Nacyjo. No 5, Jul. Zabrze: NOŚ.
Review:Jerzy Tomaszewski. 2007. Czy istnieje naród śląski? [Does the Silesian Nation Exist] (pp 280–283).Przegląd Historyczny. No 2. Warsaw: DiG and University of Warsaw.
Review: Jerzy Tomaszewski. 2007. Czy istnieje naród śląski? [Does the Silesian Nation Exist] (pp 8–12). 2007.Ślůnsko Nacyjo. No 12, Dec. Zabrze: NOŚ.
Tomasz Kamusella. 2001.Schlonzsko: Horní Slezsko, Oberschlesien, Górny Śląsk. Esej o regionie i jego mieszkańcach [Schlonzsko: Upper Silesia. An Essay on the Region and Its Inhabitants]. Elbląg, Poland: Elbląska Oficyna Wydawnicza, 108 pp. ISBN83-913452-2-X.
Review: Andreas R Hofmann. 2002.Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung. No 2. Marburg, Germany: Herder-Institut (p 311).
Review: Anon. 2002. Esej o naszym regionie [An Essay on Our region] (p 4).Głos Ludu. Gazeta Polaków w Republice Czeskiej. No 69, 11 June.Ostrava, Czech Republic: Vydavatelství OLZA.
Review:Walter Żelaznyeo:Walter Żelazny. 2003. Niech żyje śląski lud [Long Live the Silesian People] (pp 219–223). Sprawy Narodowościowe. No 22. Poznań, Poland: Zakład Badań Narodowościowych PAN.
Tomasz Kamusella. 1999. Język a Śląsk Opolski w kontekście integracji europejskiej [Language and Opole Silesia in the Context of European Integration] (pp 12–19).Śląsk Opolski. No 3. Opole, Poland: Instytut Śląski.
Tomasz Kamusella. 1998. Das oberschlesische Kreol: Sprache und Nationalismus in Oberschlesien im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert [The Upper Silesian Creole: Language and Nationalism in the 19th and 20th Centuries] (pp 142–161). In: Markus Krzoska und Peter Tokarski, eds. .Die Geschichte Polens und Deutschlands im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Ausgewählte Baiträge. Osnabrück, Germany: fibre.
Tomasz Kamusella. 1998. Kreol górnośląski [The Upper Silesian Creole] (pp 73–84).Kultura i Społeczeństwo. No 1. Warsaw, Poland: Komitet Socjologii ISP PAN.
Andrzej Roczniok and Tomasz Kamusella. 2011. Sztandaryzacyjo ślōnski godki / Standaryzacja języka śląskiego [The Standardization of the Silesian Language] (pp 288–294). In: I V Abisigomian, ed.Lingvokul’turnoe prostranstvo sovremennoi Evropy cherez prizmu malykh i bolshikh iazykov. K 70-letiiu professora Aleksandra Dimitrievicha Dulichenko (Ser: Slavica Tartuensis, Vol 9). Tartu: Tartu University.
^Tomasz Kamusella. 2013. The Silesian Language in the Early 21st Century: A Speech Community on the Rollercoaster of Politics (pp 1–35).Die Welt der Slaven. Vol 58, No 1.
^"Najstarszy zabytek śląskiej literatury? (Część 1)".Wachtyrz.eu (in Polish). 18 August 2020. Retrieved21 June 2023.Najstarsze dokumenty będące świadectwem wyodrębniania się dialektów śląskich w oddzielną grupę pochodzą z XVI w. Należą do nich m. in. list Ambrożego Szklorza z Olesna opublikowany przez Władysława Nehringa (Nehring 1902 [1]) i rachunek ślusarza Matysa Hady opublikowany przez Leona Derlicha i Andrzeja Siuduta (Derlich, Siudut 1957). Są to jednak zabytki piśmiennictwa, a nie literatury – początków tej drugiej można się doszukiwać na Śląsku w najlepszym razie dopiero w wieku XVII.
^Ernst Eichler (1999).Neue deutsche Biographie [New German biography] (in German). p. 519.
^Reinhold Olesch (1987).Zur schlesischen Sprachlandschaft: Ihr alter slawischer Anteil [On the Silesian language landscape: their old Slavic share] (in German). pp. 32–45.
^Joanna Rostropowicz.Śląski był jego językiem ojczystym: Reinhold Olesch, 1910–1990 [Silesian was his mother tongue: Reinhold Olesch, 1910–1990] (in Polish).
^Krzysztof Kluczniok, Tomasz Zając (2004).Śląsk bogaty różnorodnością – kultur, narodów i wyznań. Historia lokalna na przykładzie wybranych powiatów, miast i gmin [Silesia, a rich diversity – of cultures, nations and religions. Local history, based on selected counties, cities and municipalities]. Urząd Gm. i M. Czerwionka-Leszczyny, Dom Współpracy Pol.-Niem., Czerwionka-Leszczyny.ISBN83-920458-5-8.
^Dillingham, William Paul; Folkmar, Daniel; Folkmar, Elnora (1911).Dictionary of Races or Peoples. United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910). Washington, D.C.: Washington, Government Printing Office. pp. 104–105.
^Dillingham, William Paul; Folkmar, Daniel; Folkmar, Elnora (1911).Dictionary of Races or Peoples. Washington, D.C.: Washington, Government Printing Office. p. 128.
^Alexander M. Schenker, "Proto-Slavonic",The Slavonic Languages (1993, Routledge), pages 60–121.
^Robert A. Rothstein, "Polish",The Slavonic Languages (1993, Routledge), pages 686–758.
^Roland Sussex & Paul Cubberley,The Slavic Languages (2006, Cambridge University Press).
^Gerd Hentschel (2001). "Das Schlesische – eine neue (oder auch nicht neue) slavische Sprache?".Mitteleuropa – Osteuropa. Oldenburger Beiträge zur Kultur und Geschichte Ostmitteleuropas. P. Lang.ISBN3-631-37648-0.
^Gerd Hentschel: Das Schlesische – eine neue (oder auch nicht neue) slavische Sprache?, Mitteleuropa – Osteuropa. Oldenburger Beiträge zur Kultur und Geschichte Ostmitteleuropas. Band 2, 2001ISBN3-631-37648-0
^"Rozmowa Piotra Żmigrodzkiego z prof. Kazimierzem Polańskim". O nauce i języku.Śląsk (in Polish).6 (20):37–38. 1997.
^Mańczak, Witold (1996).Problemy językoznawstwa ogólnego (in Polish). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. p. 173.
^(in Silesian)Przemysław Jedlicki, Mirosław Syniawa (13 February 2009)."Ślabikorz dlo Slůnzokůw".Gazeta Wyborcza Katowice. Archived fromthe original on 13 February 2009.
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