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Thegrammar of theSilesian language is characterized by a high degree ofinflection, and has relatively freeword order, although the dominant arrangement issubject–verb–object (SVO). There commonly are noarticles, and there is frequentdropping of subject pronouns. Distinctive features include the different treatment ofmasculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar ofnumerals andquantifiers.

Silesian exhibits regular consonant and vowel alteration that can be found across Slavic languages and more specifically Lechitic languages. These include theSlavic palatalizations, as well as vowel alterations result from historic "pochylone" or "slanted" vowels, which were the result from historically long vowels.

Silesian retains theSlavic system ofcases fornouns,pronouns, andadjectives. There are seven cases:nominative(mianownik),genitive(dopołniŏcz),dative(cylownik),accusative(biernik),vocative(wołŏcz),locative(miyjscownik), andinstrumental(nŏrzyndnik).

Silesian has twonumber classes: singular and plural.

A few nouns display irregularities resulting from afossilized dual form, namely in:

• body parts that naturally come in pairs have synchronically irregular plural and other forms
  • ôko ("eye") – pl.ôczy
  • rynka ("hand, arm") – pl.rynce
  • ucho ("ear") – pl.uszy

Silesian, like other Lechitic languages, has three genders in the singular (masculinemynski, feminineżyński, and neuternijaki). The masculine gender can be divided into three subgenders, masculine personal (mynski ôsobowy), masculine animal (mynski zwierzyncy), and masculine inanimate (mynski rzeczowy). "Tantum plurale" or "plural only" nouns can be divided into virile (mynskoôsobowego) and non-virile (niymynskoôsobowego).

The following tables show this distinction using as examples the nounssyn 'son' (masc. personal),ptŏk 'bird' (masc. animate),cios 'hit, blow' (masc. inanimate),drōga 'road' (feminine),ciasto 'cake' (neuter). The following table presents examples of how a determinertyn/ta/to ("this") agrees with nouns of different genders in the nominative and the accusative, both singular and plural. Adjectives inflect similarly to this determiner.

For verbs, the distinction is only important for past forms in the plural, as in the table below:

The numeraldwa ("two"), on the other hand, behaves differently, merging masculine non-personal with neuter, but not with feminine:

Gender can usually be inferred from the ending of a noun.

Masculine:

• masculine nouns typically end in a consonant
• some nouns, describing people, end in-a, specifically:
  • all nouns ending in-sta, equivalent to English "-ist", e.g.gardzista ("guardsman")

Feminine:

• feminine nouns typically end in-a
• some nouns end in asoft or hardened consonant:
  • all abstract nouns ending in-ść, e.g.miyłość ("love")
  • some concrete nouns ending in-ść:kiść ("bunch")
  • -c:moc ("power"),noc ("night")
  • -czrzecz ("thing")
  • -ć:płeć ("sex, gender")
  • -dź:łōdź ("boat")
  • -j:kolyj ("railway")
  • -l:myśl ("thought")
  • -ń:jesiyń ("autumn, fall")
  • -rz:twŏrz ("face")
  • -sz:mysz ("mouse")
  • -ś:gynś ("goose")
  • -ź:gałōńź ("branch")
  • -ż:modziyż ("youth")
  • -w:krew ("blood")
• words ending in-niŏ and-ni are feminine, e.g.boginiŏ ("goddess"); alsopani ("Mrs")

Neuter:

• neuter nouns typically end in-o
• verbal nouns, which are always neuter, end in-e, e.g.robiynie etc.
• Baby animals ending in-ã are always neuter, e.g.cielã ("calf")
• Latin loanwords ending in-um : invariable in the singular, declinable in the plural by removing the-um ending and replacing it by neuter plural endings ; the genitive plural is in-ōw contrary to other neuters that have no ending →muzeum,muzea (N. pl.),muzeōw (G. pl.)

The distinction between personal, animate and inanimate nouns within masculine nouns is largely semantic, although not always.

Personal nouns are comprised by human nouns such as 'man' orchop 'man'.

Animate nouns are largely comprised by animals such aspies ("dog"), many members from otherlife domains, as well as a number of objects associated with human activity. On the morphological level however, such nouns are only partially similar to animate nouns, having their accusative identical to their genitive only in the singular.

Masculine personal nouns can be "downgraded" to masculine animate nouns, called the deprecative form.

• Synowie szli →syny szły (sons were walking).

Plants and objects ending in a consonant are masculine inanimate.

Declensions are generally divided intohard andsoft declensions. Soft declensions are used when the stem of the noun ends in a soft (postalveolar or palatal-like) consonant in all forms, while hard declensions are used by nouns with stems ending in a hard consonant in some (but not necessarily all) forms.

The following generalizations can be made for the inflection of all nouns:

• The nominative and vocative plural are always identical.
• For neuter nouns, the nominative, accusative and vocative are always identical in both singular and plural.
• The accusative of masculine nouns is identical to either the nominative or the genitive.
• The locative, dative and instrumental plural almost always have the same endings (-ach,-ōm,-ami/-ōma) no matter how the noun is declined. The form-ōma is used mostly in the north-western part of Silesia.

This group comprises nouns ending in -a and -ŏ. This is predominantly feminine nouns, with a few masculine nouns (in the singular).

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This group comprises nouns ending in -o, -e, and -ã. This group is comprised without exception of neuter nouns.

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This group comprises nouns ending in consonants and have -u or -a in the genitive singular. This pattern is exclusively masculine nouns, including masculine person, animal, and inanimate.

Hard stems

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Soft stems

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Hard stems

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Soft stems

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This group comprises nouns ending in -∅ have -i/-y or -e in the genitive singular. This is exclusively feminine nouns.

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This group comprises nouns with adjectival declension, and can be masculine or feminine, taking the appropriate gender ending. Seeadjectives and adverbs.

This group comprises nouns ending in -um in the singular and neuter declensions in the plural. Nouns in this group are neuter.

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Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender, number and case. In the nominative masculine virile plural the stem undergoes a softening change, e.g.

1. -ry → -rzi
2. -ki → -cy
3. -gi → -dzy
4. -ty → -ci
5. -dy → -dzi
6. -ny → -ni

Hard stems

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Soft stems

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Most short non-relational adjectives have a comparative form in-szy or-iejszy, (e.g.dugy →dugszy and a superlative obtained by prefixingnoj- to the comparative (e.g.dugszy →nojdugszy.For adjectives that do not have these forms, the wordsbarzij ("more") andnojbarzij ("most") are used before the adjective to make comparative and superlative phrases.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the endingie, or in some cases-o (e.g.dugi →dugo. Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending-(i)yj (e.g.dugo →dużyj). Superlatives have the prefixnoj- as for adjectives (dużyj →nojdużyj).

Thepersonal pronouns of Silesian (nominative forms) arejŏ ("I"),ty ("you", singular,familiar),ŏn ("he", or "it" corresponding to masculine nouns),ŏna ("she", or "it" corresponding to feminine nouns),ŏno ("it" corresponding to neuter nouns),my ("we"),wy ("you", plural, familiar),ŏni (virile "they" – seeNoun syntax below),ŏne (non-virile "they").

Thepolite second-person pronouns are the same as the nounspōn ("gentleman, Mr"),pani ("lady, Mrs") and their pluralspanowie, panie. The mixed-sex plural ispaństwo. All second-person pronouns are often capitalized for politeness, in letters etc.

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There may be a form beginning withn-, used after prepositions.Short clitic forms (i.e.mu) might be used in unstressed positions.

Thereflexive pronoun for all persons and numbers issiebie,sie,siã.

Thepossessive adjectives (also used as possessive pronouns) derived from the personal pronouns aremōj,twōj,jego (m., n.)/[jij (f.);nasz,wasz,ich. There is also a reflexive possessiveswōj. The polite second-person pronouns have possessives identical to the genitives of the corresponding nouns.

Thedemonstrative pronoun, also used as a demonstrative adjective, istyn (feminineta, neuterto, masculine personal pluralci, other pluralte). The distal demonstrative pronoun istamtyn.

Interrogative pronouns arefto ("who") andco ("what"); these also provide the pronounsftoś/coś ("someone/something"),nikt/nic ("no one/nothing").

The usualrelative pronouns arekery,chtory, andftory (which, which one; that) (declined like an adjective).

The pronoun and adjectivewszystek means "all". It is used most commonly in the pluralwszyjscy ("everyone"), and in the neuter singular(wszyjsko) to mean "everything". The pronoun and adjectivekażdy means "each, every", whileżŏdyn means "no, none".

Silesian has a complex system ofnumerals and relatedquantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verbagreement with the resulting noun phrase.

The base numbers are as follows:

1. Zero –nul/nula or zero
2. One –jedyn
3. Two –dwa
4. Three –trzi
5. Four –sztyry
6. Five –piyńć
7. Six –szejś/sześ
8. Seven –siedym
9. Eight –ôziym
10. Nine –dziewiyńć
11. Ten –dziesiyńć
12. Eleven –jedynŏście
13. Twelve –dwanŏście
14. Thirteen –trzinŏście
15. Fourteen –sztyrnŏście
16. Fifteen –piytnŏście
17. Sixteen –szesnŏście
18. Seventeen –siedymnŏście
19. Eighteen –ôziymnŏście
20. Nineteen –dziewiytnŏście
21. Twenty –dwadzieścia
22. Thirty –trzidzieści
23. Forty –sztyrdzieści
24. Fifty –piyńćdziesiōnt
25. Sixty –sześdziesiōnt/szejśdziesiōnt
26. Seventy –siedymdziesiōnt
27. Eighty –ôziymdziesiōnt
28. Ninety –dziewiyńćdziesiōnt
29. One hundred –sto
30. Two hundred –dwiesta
31. Three hundred –trzista
32. Four hundred –sztyrysta
33. Five hundred –piyńćset
34. Six hundred –sześset/szejśset
35. Seven hundred –siedymset
36. Eight hundred –ôziymset
37. Nine hundred –dziewiyńćset
38. One thousand –tysiōnc or tauzyn, which is treated as a noun (as thousand isdwa tysiōnce/tauzyny, literally "two thousands").
39. Million –milijōn, also a noun.
40. Billion (short scale), milliard (long scale) –milijard
41. Trillion (short scale), billion (long scale) –bilijōn
42. Quadrillion (short scale), billiard (long scale) –bilijard

Compound numbers are constructed similarly as in English (for example, 91,234 is dziewiyńćdziesiōnt jedyn tysiyncy/tauzynōw dwiesta trzidzieści sztyry).The numeral jedyn (1) behaves as an ordinary adjective, and no special rules apply. It can even be used in the plural, for example to mean "some" (and not others), or to mean "one" with pluralia tantum, e.g. jedne dźwiyrze "one door" (dźwiyrze has no singular).After the numerals dwa, trzi, sztyry (2, 3, 4), and compound numbers ending with them (22, 23, 24, etc. but not 12, 13, or 14, which take -nŏście as a suffix and are thus not compound numbers in the first place), the noun is plural and takes the same case as the numeral, and the resulting noun phrase is plural (e.g. 4 koty stały, "4 cats stood").With other numbers (5, 6, etc., 20, 21, 25, etc.), if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun takes the genitive plural form, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular (e.g. 5 kotōw stało, "5 cats stood").With the masculine personal plural forms of numbers (as given in the morphology article section), the rule given above – that if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun is genitive plural and the resulting phrase is neuter singular – applies to all numbers other than 1 (as in trzech chopōw prziszło, "three men came").If the numeral is in the genitive, dative, instrumental or locative, the noun takes the same case as the numeral (except sometimes in the case of numbers that end with the nouns for 1000 and higher quantities, which often take a genitive noun regardless since they are treated as normal nouns).

Certainquantifiers behave similarly to numerals. These includekilka ("several"), ("a few") andwiele ("much, many"), which behave like numbers above 5 in terms of the noun cases and verb forms taken.

Quantifiers that always take the genitive of nouns includemoc or siyła ("a lot"),dużo ("much, many"),mało ("few, little"),wiyncyj ("more"),mynij ("less") (alsonojwiyncyj/nojmynij "most/least"),trochã ("a bit").

The wordsôba andôbadwa (meaning "both"), and their derived forms behave likedwa.

Silesianverbs have the grammatical category ofaspect. Each verb is eitherimperfective, meaning that it denotes continuous or habitual events, orperfective, meaning that it denotes single completed events (in particular, perfective verbs have no present tense). Verbs often occur in imperfective and perfective pairs – for example,czytać andprzeczytać both mean "to read", but the first has imperfective aspect, the second perfective.

Ôn czytoł ksiōnżkã. → "He was reading a book."

Ôn przeczytoł ksiōnżkã. → "He read a book."

Imperfective verbs have threetenses:present,past andfuture, the last being a compound tense (except in the case ofbyć "to be"). Perfective verbs have a past tense and a simple future tense, the latter formed on the same pattern as the present tense of imperfective verbs. Both types also haveimperative andconditional forms. The dictionary form of a verb is theinfinitive, which usually ends with-ć and occasionally with-c,-ś, or-ź.

The present tense of imperfective verbs (and future tense of perfective verbs) has six forms, for the threepersons and twonumbers. There are eight main conjugation patterns.

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The past tense agrees with the subject in gender as well as person and number. The basic past stem is in-ł; to this are added endings for gender and number, and then personal endings are further added for the first and second person forms.

^[14]

The largely archaic or stylizedpluperfect tense is formed analytically:^[15]

1. In the first person masculine singular, withbōłch,bōłech, orbōł żech and the third person masculine past form.
2. In the first person feminine singular, withbyłach orbyła żech and the third person feminine past form.
3. In the first person neuter singular, withbyłoch orbyło żech and the third person feminine past form.
4. In the first person virile plural, withbyli my orbylichmy and the third person virile plural past form.
5. In the first person non-virile plural, withbyły my orbyłychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
6. In the second person masculine singular, withbōłś,bōłeś, orbōł żeś and the third person masculine past form.
7. In the second person feminine singular, withbyłaś orbyła żeś and the third person feminine past form.
8. In the second person neuter singular, withbyłoś orbyło żeś and the third person feminine past form.
9. In the second person virile plural, withbyliście orbyli żeście and the third person virile plural past form.
10. In the second person non-virile plural, withbyłyście orbyły żeście and the third person virile plural past form.
11. In the third person masculine singular, withbōł and the third person masculine past form.
12. In the second person feminine singular, withbyła and the third person feminine past form.
13. In the second person neuter singular, withbyło and the third person feminine past form.
14. In the second person virile plural, withbyliście and the third person virile plural past form.
15. In the second person non-virile plural, withbyłyście and the third person virile plural past form.

The imperfective future tense is formed analytically using a future form ofbyć and either the infinite or the appropriate third person past form.

czytać →bydã czytać/bydã czytoł

The perfective future is formed using a personal non-past form of a perfective form.^[16]

przeczytać →przeczytōm

Theconditional is formed analytically or by attaching a declined form of the cliticby and the third person past tense.^[17]

1. In the first person singular, withbych and the appropriate third person past form.
2. In the first person virile plural, with by my orbychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
3. In the first person non-virile plural, with by my orbychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
4. In the first person singular, withbyś and the appropriate third person past form.
5. In the second person virile plural, withbyście and the third person virile plural past form.
6. In the second person non-virile plural, withbyście and the third person virile plural past form.
7. In the third person, withby and the appropriate third person past form.

Theimperative is formed in various ways depending on the conjugation pattern. Sometimes only the stem is present with raising, as inrobić →rōb, sometimes the suffixes-ej/-ij are added. Further suffixes-my and-cie are available for the first person plural and second person plural forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronounspōn etc.) the particleniych is used at the start of the sentence (or at least before the verb), with the verb in the future tense (ifbyć or perfective) or present tense (otherwise). There is a tendency to prefer imperfective verbs in imperative sentences for politeness; negative imperatives quite rarely use perfectives.^[17]

• presentadverbial participle (imperfective verbs only) are formed with-ōnc such asśpiywajōnc (meaning "(when) singing", "by singing", etc.)
• presentadjectival participle (imperfective verbs only), formed from the present adverbial participle by adding adjectival endings with-ōncy asśpiywajōncy etc., meaning "singing" (as anattributive adjective), although such participles can be used to form extended adjectival phrases, which (usually unlike in English) can precede the noun.
• passive participle (all transitive verbs), in-ny or-ty (conjugated as an adjective). This often corresponds to the Englishpast participle, both in fully adjectival use and inpassive voice.^[18]

The verbal noun is formed by adding either-ni(e) or-ci(e). It is a regular derivation of verbs.

Silesian usesprepositions, which form phrases by preceding a noun or noun phrase. Different prepositions take different cases (all cases are possible except nominative and vocative); some prepositions can take different cases depending on meaning.

The prepositionsz andw are pronounced together with the following word, obeying the usual rules for consonant cluster voicing (soz tobōm "with you" is pronouncedstobōm). Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case ofz) or withf/w (in the case ofw), the prepositions take the formzy andwy. These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns inmn-; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns, and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the-y). The prepositionspo anddo have the variationspō anddō when before nasal consonants.

Common prepositions include:

• na, with the locative with basic meaning "on", and with the accusative with basic meaning "onto" (also metaphorical meanings)
• w, with the locative with basic meaning "in"
• z, with the instrumentalcomitative meaning "with" (in accompaniment of); with the genitive meaning "from, out of"
• do/ôd, with genitive, meaning "to, into/from"
• dlŏ, with genitive, meaning "for"
• ô, with locative meaning "about", also with the accusative in some constructions
• przed/za/nad/pod with instrumental meaning "before, in front of/behind/over/under", also with the accusative in some meanings (and genitive in the case ofza); there are also compound prepositionssprzed/zza/znad/spod ("from in front of" etc.) taking the genitive
• przez/bez with the accusative, meaning "through" etc.
• przeciwko with dative, meaning "against"
• po, with locative meaning "after", also with the accusative in some meanings
• przi, with locative, meaning "near" etc.
• bez, with genitive, meaning "without"

Common Silesianconjunctions include:

• i meaning "and"
• lub anda(l)bo meaning "or"
• ale meaning "but"
• że meaning "that"
• jeśli/eźli/ejźli/jeli/eli/jeźli/jesi meaning "if" (for real conditionals) orgdyby andkeby (whereby is the conditional particle)
• czy meaning "whether" (also an interrogative particle)
• kedy orgdy meaning "when"
• wiync andbeztōż/bezto meaning "so" and "therefore"
• bo meaning "because"
• choć/chociŏż meaning "although"
• aby/żeby meaning "in order to/that" (can be followed by an infinitive phrase, or by a sentence in the past tense; in the latter case, theby of the conjunction is in fact the conditional particle and takes personal endings as appropriate)

Silesian edition ofWikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of:Silesian

Silesian edition ofWikisource, the free library

• silling, an online Silesian-Polish dictionary
• dykcjonorz, an online grammatical dictionary of Silesian

• Silesian language

• Articles with short description
• Short description matches Wikidata
• Articles needing additional references from November 2023
• All articles needing additional references
• Articles containing Silesian-language text
• CS1 foreign language sources (ISO 639-2)