Silat
سيلت‎

A MalaySingaporean pesilat
Also known as	Seni Persilatan Melayu[1]
Focus	self-defence
Hardness	Full-contact,semi-contact,light-contact
Country of origin	Indonesia
Olympic sport	No

Silat Melayu (Jawi:سيلت ملايو‎), also known asSeni Persilatan Melayu^[1] ('art of Malay Silat') or simplySilat, is a combative art of self-defence from theMalay world, that employslangkah ('steps') andjurus ('movements') to ward off or to strike assaults, either with or without weapons. Silat traced its origin to the early days ofMalay civilisation, and has since developed into a fine tradition of physical and spiritual training that embodies aspects of traditional Malay attire, performing art andadat. The philosophical foundation of modern Malay Silat is largely based on the Islamic spirituality.^[2] Its moves and shapes are rooted from the basis of Silat movements calledBunga Silat, and Silat performances are normally accompanied with Malay drum assembles.^[3]

The termSilat is also employed to refer to similar fighting styles in areas with significantMalay cultural influence, in modern-dayBrunei,Malaysia,Singapore,Thailand,Philippines, andVietnam. In Indonesia, the termPencak Silat, a composite term introduced in the late 1940s,^[4][5] deriving from the Sundanese/Javanese wordPenca(k) and Malay/Sumatran wordSilat,^[6] has been used officially since 1973 as an umbrella term of traditionalmartial arts of Indonesia.^[7] In Malay terminology, the term 'Pencak Silat' is also used, but more in referring to the exoteric aspect of the fighting style, in contrast to the esoteric aspect of Silat calledSeni Silat ('the art of Silat'). In other words, 'pencak' (fighting) can be regarded as thezahir (outer/exoteric knowledge), whilstseni pertains to the whole of Silat includingbatin (inner/esoteric knowledge) andzahir.Seni Silat is thus considered to be a deeper level of understanding. Therefore, it is said that each aspect of Silat emanates fromseni (art), including both the fighting and the dance aspects.^[8]

Regionally, Silat is governed by PERSIB (National Pencak Silat Federation of Brunei Darussalam) in Brunei, PESAKA (National Silat Federation of Malaysia) in Malaysia and PERSISI (Singapore Silat Federation) in Singapore. These governing bodies, together with IPSI (Indonesian Pencak Silat Association), are the founding members of International Pencak Silat Federation (PERSILAT). The sport version of Silat is one of the sports included in theSoutheast Asian Games and other region-wide competitions, under the name 'Pencak Silat'. Pencak silat first made its debut in1987 Southeast Asian Games and2018 Asian Games, both were held in Indonesia. Silat was recognized as a piece ofIntangible Cultural Heritage byUNESCO in 2019.^[9]

Owing to lack of written records, the origin of the word 'silat' remains uncertain. The use of the term 'silat' in referring to Malay martial arts was somewhat absent from contemporary writings from the 15th to 16th centuries. TheHikayat Hang Tuah that was written by the end of the 17th century, with warrior stories form its main repertoire, does not employ the word ‘silat’, but uses other terms likeilmu perang ('military knowledge'),ilmu hulubalang ('knowledge ofHulubalang'),ilmu prajurit ('knowledge of soldiers’), in referring to the Malay martial arts.^[10]

The earliest known mention of ‘silat’ inMisa Melayu, written sometimes between 1720 and 1786, was rather generic in nature and not specifically referring to the Malay martial arts. It was used as a generic term in describing the movements ofkuntao as performed by Chinese folks.^[11] In this regard, the word 'silat' is thought to originate from the composite of two words 'si' and 'elat'. 'Si' is a Malayarticle used withadjectives to describe people, and normally found in names and nicknames. While 'elat' is a verb means 'to trick', 'to confuse' or 'to deceive'. The derivative transitive verb 'menyilat' or 'menyilap' carries the meaning of an action to evade, to trick or to take an assault, together with a counterattack.^[12] This implies that the term 'silat' is a generic term in origin, referring to any forms of martial arts that involve such movements, before it began to specifically refers to Malay martial arts. In the 19th century literary texts, reference to 'silat' as a specific martial art of Malay people began to appear, for example inHikayat Pahang,^[13]Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda,^[14] Hikayat Malim Deman^[15] and many others.

Alternative views from oral literature point the word to Arabic origin. 'Silat' is said to derive from the Arabic word 'silah' (سِلَاح) meaning 'weapon'^[16] or 'silah' (صِلَةُ) meaning 'connection'.^[17] Over the time, the word is believed to has been malayised into 'Silat' in similar way the wordkaramah (كرامة) was malayised intokeramat (کرامت) ('sacred') and the word 'hikmah' (حكمة) was malayised intohikmat (حکمت) ('supernatural power'). This etymological root suggests that Silat is philosophically based on the teaching of Islam,^[18] which over the centuries, have become the source of aMalay identity. The use of the Arabic word serves as a tool in elaborating the philosophy of both Malay culture and art itself. The 'connection' in the etymology suggests that Silat covers aspects in the relationship between humans, between humans and their enemies, and between human and nature, and ultimately attaining the spirituality, that is the relationship between human and their creator.^[19]

Other etymological root suggests that the word is said to derive from 'silap' (to make a mistake). This means that using the opponent's strength against them—in their strength lies their weakness. This strength could be physical or psychological. Others suggested that it originated from the wordsekilat meaning "as fast as lightning" derived fromkilat (lightning);sila (as in silsilah or chain) indicating the transmission of Silat from guru to murid (disciple of Silat or other religious or secular knowledge); and more mysteriously, from the Arabicsolat (prayer), although linguists regard solat as an unlikely candidate for the etymological root of 'Silat'. Other contenders for the etymological root of 'Silat' include the 'Orang Selat' (an indigenous Malay people of Singapore), and selat as inSelat Melaka (theStraits of Malacca).^[20] English-language publications are sometimes mistakenly refer to Silat Melayu asbersilat but this is actually a verb form of the noun Silat, literally meaning "to perform Silat".

The genesis of traditional Malay martial arts has been attributed to the need forself-defense, hunting techniques and military training in ancientMalay world.Hand-to-hand combat andweapons practice were important in training warriors for combat in human warfare. Early traditional fighting styles believed to have been developed among various Malayic tribes from the dawn of the Malayic civilisation, 2000 years ago.^[21][22] Movements of these early fighting styles epitomize the movements of various animals such as the crocodile, tiger and eagle, and deeply influenced byancient Malay animism.^[23] As the expandingIron Age civilisations on theMainland Southeast Asia engaged in wars and diplomacy, it led to the advancement of the art of war, weaponry and martial arts skills.^[24]

Early Malays and the relatedChams, were the only sizableAustronesians that had established themselves since the Iron Age on the Mainland Southeast Asia among the Austroasiatic inhabitants.^[25] Some scholars likeHall andBlust argued that even the earlierFunanese were Austronesians, and by the early centuries of Christiann era, a single dialect chain of Austronesian languages would have extended almost unbroken from theMalay Peninsula to Champa. The expansion of theKhmers into the region of theMekong Delta would then have divided an earlier language continuum into two separate and smaller dialects.^[26] By the 2nd century CE, the early Austronesian settlements that centered around present day Southern Vietnam and theKra Isthmus region of the Malay Peninsula and its peripheries, had developed into strong kingdoms likeChampa,Langkasuka andKedah. The Chams were particularly known as formidable warriors who were great exponents of martial arts. Their exceptional skills in warfare were gained through their long intermittent conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms. The discovery of prototypes ofbronzekris in Southern Vietnam, withhilt decorated by human figure, dating back to more than 2000 years ago, further indicated that the Chams had developed an advanced martial arts tradition.^[27][28] Even centuries later, their martial prowess were still held in high regards among people in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, as the legends of prominent Cham warriors made its way in theMalay Annals andTambo ofMinangkabau people.Tambo for example, recounts the legend of a Cham warrior who goes by the name Harimau Campo ('tiger of Champa’). Together with Kuciang Siam, Kambiang Hutan and Anjiang Mualim, they developed the early Minangkabausilek.^[29]

The early fighting styles are also thought to have been developed in Langkasuka, another important Austronesian polity of Mainland Southeast Asia. Langkasuka that is widely regarded as the progenitor ofPattani Kingdom, along with the culturally-relatedKedah, are earliest kingdoms of the Malay Peninsula. The martial prowess of people in the Pattani region is well recounted in many Malay legends, an indication of a long established martial arts tradition since the ancient times.Hikayat Hang Tuah narrates that the people of Pattani were known for their advanced martial art skills and their army were not easily subdued by the Melakan forces.^[30] The oldest form of silat still in existence,Silat Tua ('ancient silat') which is strongly rooted in animism,^[31] is originated from Pattani and according to the local legends, was once practiced byHang Tuah himself.^[32]

An important development of martial arts of the Malay world is also attributed to the foreign influence. The infusion of foreign elements were not only obtained through wars and conquests, but also through trade and diplomacy. The growth in trade relations brought in foreign influence throughout the early primordial Austronesian ancient states, most importantly in cultural traits including the combative arts.^[33] The influence from bothChinese andIndian martial arts can be observed from the use of weapons such as the Indian mace and the Chinese sword. During this period, formalised combat arts were believed to have been practiced in the Champa, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.^[34] From the 12th century, the martial arts were further developed inLangkasuka underSrivijaya afterChola Empire was expelled from Sumatra and Malay Peninsula.TheRiau Archipelago is particularly noted in its role in the development of Malay martial arts. Its peopleOrang Laut also called Orang Selat are stereotyped assea pirates, but historically played major roles in the times ofSrivijaya and later sultanates ofMelaka, andJohor. The fighting styles developed in this area are described by different writers as a crude prototype of Malay martial arts and one of the progenitors of modern Malay Silat.^[35]

The Malay martial arts reached its historical peak with the rise of Islam during the 15th century under theMelaka Sultanate.^[36] The era is known for the infusions of Islamic philosophy and elements ofsufism, or Islamic mysticism, in silat. Literary texts mentioned some notable sufis like Makhdum Sadar Jahan who was a teacher for SultanAhmad Shah,^[37] as well as Sheikh Mansur who taughtHang Tuah the knowledge oftasawuf.^[38] The era also saw the introduction ofBaju Melayu^[39] that became the common uniform of silat practitioners until today.^[40]

The Melakan era that lasted until the early 16th century is also a popular setting for the stories and legends in classical Malay literature. Numerous exploits of warriors are recounted in famous literary texts like theMalay Annals andHikayat Hang Tuah. In theMalay Annals, the martial prowess of the Malay rulers and nobility is dramatically recounted in many colourful vignettes, for example, that of SultanAlauddin personally apprehending thieves in flight. These legends are important because they establish the principle of the divine rule of kings, kings who are said to be the shadow of god on earth, and because they firmly tie divine right to the war machine, silat.^[41] TheHikayat Hang Tuah narrates the life of the legendaryLaksamanaHang Tuah, a renowned formidable exponent of martial arts, whose exploits are still recounted today as an integral part of the cultural legacy of silat.^[42] Hisduel with one of his companions,Hang Jebat is the famous depiction of a silat duel in literature and art, and has also become the most controversial subject in Malay culture, concerning on the questions of unconditional loyalty and justice. In early literature, the Malay martial arts were generally known asilmu perang ('military knowledge'),ilmu hulubalang ('knowledge ofHulubalang'),ilmu prajurit ('knowledge of soldiers') in literature.^[10]

Foreign influences, like in pre-Islamic era Malay Peninsula, plays important role in shaping various cultural aspects in Melakan society. The Malay Annals recorded an enclave ofChams among many foreign enclaves in the city of Melaka.^[28] The Chams who arrived after the sack ofChampa’s capitalVijaya in 1471,^[43] were said to be instrumental in the development of martial arts in Melakan era.^[29] They were known to have been held in high esteem by the Malay kings for their knowledge in martial arts and for being highly skilled in theart of war.^[28] Since it was common back then for prominent fighters to be elevated to head war troops and received ranks or bestowals from theraja, Chams also rose in ranks, filling important positions within the sultanate. During the reign of SultanMansur Shah, a Cham prince named Indera Brama was appointed as a senior minister in Melakan court, an indication of their importance.^[28][43]

From the 15th century onwards,Malayisation spread many Malay traditions including language, literature, martial arts, and other cultural values throughoutMaritime Southeast Asia. Historical accounts note close relationship between Melaka and Brunei Sultanates, leading to the spread of Silat through the region from as early as the 15th century. Brunei's national epic poem, theSyair Awang Semaun, recounts the legend of a strong and brave warrior Awang Semaun who contributed extensively to the development of Brunei, and who is also said to be the younger brother of Awang Alak Betatar orMuhammad Shah (1405–1415), the first Sultan of Brunei. The fifth Sultan,Bolkiah, who ruled between 1485 and 1524, excelled both in martial art and diplomacy.^[44] Under the seventh Sultan,Saiful Rijal (1575–1600), the sultanate was involved in theCastilian War against theSpanish Empire in 1578, and they would have used Silat and invulnerability practices.^[45] Thereafter, several patriots excelled as warriors, includingPengiran Bendahara Sakam under the reign ofSultan Abdul Mubin (1600–1673).^[46] As Brunei rose to the status of a maritime power at the crossroads of Southeast Asia, it built the unity of the kingdom through war and conquest, and managed to extend its control over the coastal regions of modern-daySarawak andSabah and the Philippines Islands, which were under the Sultanate's control for more than two centuries.^[47]

In the 16th century,conquistadors fromPortugal attackedMalacca in an attempt to monopolise the spice trade. TheMalay warriors managed to hold back the better-equippedEuropeans for over 40 days beforeMalacca was eventually defeated. ThePortuguese hunted and killed anyone with knowledge of martial arts so that the remaining practitioners fled to more isolated areas.^[48] Even today, the best silat masters are said to come from rural villages that have had the least contact with outsiders.

For the next few hundred years, theMalay Archipelago would be contested by a string of foreign rulers, namely thePortuguese,Dutch, and finally theBritish. The 17th century saw an influx ofMinangkabau andBugis people into thepeninsula fromSumatra andsouth Sulawesi respectively.Bugis sailors were particularly famous for their martial prowess and were feared even by theEuropean colonists. Between 1666 and 1673, Bugismercenaries were employed by theJohor Empire when a civil war erupted withJambi, an event that marked the beginning ofBugis influences in local conflicts for succeeding centuries. By the 1780s theBugis had control ofJohor and established a kingdom inSelangor. With the consent of theJohor ruler, theMinangkabau people formed their own federation of nine states calledNegeri Sembilan in the hinterland. Today, some ofMalaysia's silat schools can trace their lineage directly back to theMinangkabau andBugis settlers of this period.

AfterMalaysia achieved independence,Tuan Haji Anuar bin Haji Abd. Wahab was given the responsibility of developing the nation's national silat curriculum which would be taught to secondary and primary school students all over the country. On 28 March 2002, hisSeni Silat Malaysia was recognised by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture, the Ministry of Education and PESAKA asMalaysia's national silat. It is now conveyed to the community by means of thegelanggang bangsal meaning the martial arts training institution carried out by silat instructors.^[49] Malaysian Silat by December 2019, received recognition fromUNESCO as part of MalaysianIntangible Cultural Heritage.^[50]

Silat in Brunei shares characteristics common in the Malay world, but it has also developed specific techniques and practices of its own. Silat as a performing art is traditionally accompanied by an orchestra calledgulintangan orgulingtangan (literally: ‘rolling hands’), often composed of a drum (gandang labik) and eight gongs, including a thin gong (canang tiga) and a thick gong (tawak-tawak).^[51] There are several styles being practiced in Brunei, and some are influenced by a range of elements from Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. The most widespread is Gerak 4 1, created by H. Ibrahim, and consisting of the four styles learnt from his masters: Panca Sunda, Silat Cahaya, Silat Kuntau and Silat Cakak Asli. Some of the other styles include Kembang Goyang, Kuntau Iban, Lintau Pelangi (originally from Belait), Pampang Mayat, Pancasukma, Perisai Putih (originally from the East Javanese school Setia Hati), Persatuan Perkasa, Persatuan Basikap, Selendang Merah (‘the red scarf’), Silat Sendi, Tambong, Teipi Campaka Puteh, Gayong Kicih or Kiceh, Gayong Tiga or Permainan Tiga (which includes Gayong, Cimande and Fattani), and Cengkaman Harimau Ghaib.^[52]

The different styles of Silat are often practiced among different nationalities, and not according to specific territorial borders. Nevertheless, the foreign influences are rarely clearly expressed by the practitioners. There are many Filipinos and Indonesians in Brunei as migrant workers, but due to their significantly lower social status, the influence of the styles developed in their original countries are not that clearly visible among local styles.^[52] This is contributed in part, by the royal and aristocratic status of Silat itself in Malay society, in contrast to its peasant martial arts status in other society.^[53] At the same time, a variety of local styles fell under the nationalisation drive for a common tradition of Bruneian Silat, bringing other styles of different indigenous groups that occupied the territories that were formerly part of Brunei, into isolation. This led to the abandonment of many details of the Silat practices in favor of a national homogeneity.^[52]

In the end, two most widespread styles were established as national ones;Silat Cakak Asli andSilat Kuntau, which both be seen as complementing each other.Cakak Asli focuses more on relaxed moves but sticky-hand techniques in a close combat, to ultimately unbalance the opponent, and hit with the knees, elbows and forehead. Kuntau prioritizes various forms of punches and kicking, and normally done in fast and harsh movements, therefore making it hard to perform lock in a close range combat. These two styles have been patronized in the sultanate for many generation of rulers, but with lack of written records, it is hard to trace their origins and development in Brunei. The 29th sultan,Omar Ali Saifuddien III, was known for having learnt bothSilat Cakak Asli andSilat Kuntau and he promoted local Silat in the 1950s, notably by organizing tournaments at the palace.^[52]

Silat practiced in Malaysia are diverse, with vast differences in training tools, methods and philosophy across different schools and styles. The variety of styles not only demonstrated many different combat skills, but also the ability of the martial art itself in manifesting different personages and community in warrior traditions. Some forms of Silat also exist especially in the very remote villages, with members consisting of a few students. The modern law and regulations require that the Silat bodies need to be registered as an association or club. Therefore, we find that those silat forms with very few members are those which are being practiced in a secretive way in remote areas and are taught only by invitation of the master. Based on the data from 1975, there were 265 styles of Silat in Malaysia, which in turn grouped into 464 different Silat associations throughout the country. Today, there are 548 associations or communities which actively practicing Silat in Malaysia. Out of these, four associations are the most prominent and became the founding members ofMajlis Silat Negara ('National Silat Council') in 1978, later renamedPersekutuan Silat Kebangsaan Malaysia or PESAKA (The National Silat Federation of Malaysia).^[54]

Students at theInternational Islamic University Malaysia practicing Silat Seni Gayung armed with a blade.

The first two associations areSeni Gayung Fatani Malaysia andSilat Seni Gayung Malaysia that represent a style calledseni gayong (modern spellingseni gayung). The wordgayung in Malay literally means to assault using blades likeparang orsword, or it can also mean 'martial art' and synonymous to Silat itself.Gayung also means "single-stick," a weapon that is associated with magical powers in Malay literature. For the Malay martial artist,gayung is a verb that describes the action of dipping into the well of the unseen, to draw out mystical power for use in this world. Seni Gayung is a composite style, incorporating both Malay Silat and elements from Bugis fighting styles. It is visually distinctive from other Malay styles of Silat due to its emphasis upon performance acrobatics, including flips, diving rolls, somersaults, and handsprings. The student learns to competently handle several weapons, notably theparang,lembing (spear),sarung and thekris.^[55]

The next association isSeni Silat Cekak Malaysia that represents a style calledSilat Cekak.Silat cekak was originally developed in theKedah Court, and has been practiced by senior commanders of Kedah army in wars fought against the Siamese. The style is said to has been developed specifically to counter the Thai fighting style,Muay Thai or known locally astomoi. It is one of the most popular Silat styles in Malaysia, first registered as an association in Kedah in 1904, and for Malaysia generally in 1965.Cekak in Malay means to 'claw' or to seize the opponent. It is renowned for its series ofbuah (combat strategy) which have been influential in the development of more recent silat styles inMalay Peninsula, includingseni gayung.^[56] Unlike most of styles of Silat,Silat Cekak is known for its non-ceremonious nature with no emphasis in graceful dance-like movements. It is a defensive-type of Silat that applies 99% defending techniques and only 1% attacking techniques. The style has nokuda-kuda stances commonly found in other Silat styles, and it does not utilize any evading nor side stepping techniques in mortal combat. As a result, it is hard to predict movements and counter-attacks of this style.^[57][58]

The last association isSeni Silat Lincah Malaysia that represents a style calledSilat Lincah.Silat Lincah is said to originate from another older style of Melaka calledSilat Tarah, allegedly practiced byHang Jebat himself, one of the companions ofHang Tuah.^[59] The wordtarah in Malay means to sever as in cut off, and the term was considered too aggressive for the use of masses, thus it was changed toLincah.Lincah means fast and aggressive which is the principle of the style, that emphasise aggressive movements both in defense and attacking techniques in punches and kicks. The style favors evasion with follow up sweeps, locks and chokes that do not relate to dueling techniques used with akris. Similar toSilat Cekak,Silat Lincah put little emphasis to graceful dance-like movements.^[60][61]

Despite its status as aglobal city, Singapore still retains a large part of its cultural heritage including Silat. Historically, Silat development in Singapore is closely related to the mainland Malay Peninsula, owing to its status as an important city in Malay history fromclassical to modern era. There are styles being practiced are influenced by a range of elements from both Malaysia and Indonesia, and there are also styles that locally developed and spread to other neighboring countries especially Malaysia.Seni Gayong, one of the biggest Silat styles in Malaysia, was founded in the early 1940s by Mahaguru Datuk Meor Abdul Rahman onPulau Sudong seven kilometres south of Singapore. Having inherited the art from his maternal grandfather, Syed Zainal Abidin Al-Attas, a prominentpendekar fromPahang,^[62] he transformed the style from a parochial past time to a regimented and highly organised form of self defense during the troubled years of theJapanese occupation.^[63]

Another notable style originated from Singapore is calledSilat Harimau established by Mahaguru Haji Hosni Bin Ahmad in 1974. The styles that inspired by the movements of tiger began to gain popularity in 1975 not only in Singapore but also in Malaysia. It was recognised by the Malaysian Martial Arts Federation, as a native Silat of Singapore that represents the city state in various competitions and demonstrations.^[64] Haji Hosni went on to establish another style calledSeni Silat Al-Haq. It is a style that derives itsbuah (combat strategy) from bothSeni gayung andSilat Cekak, and considered as a more aesthetically polished (halus) style of Seni gayung.^[65] There are many other styles of Silat currently found in Singapore but nearly a third of the styles are the result from Haji Rosni's adaptations and innovations. For example, where there wasSilat Kuntao Melaka, he createdSilat Kuntao Asli, and in the place ofSilat Cekak, he createdCekak Serantau.^[66]

The southernmost provinces of Thailand, located on the Malay Peninsula, are culturally and historically related to the states of Malaysia. Similarities are not only found in the spoken language, but also in a variety of Malay cultural aspects including Silat. Despite being suppressed and subjected toThaification by the central government, the practice of Silat still finds its widespread currency in those provinces. Many different forms of Silat can be found in the Malay Muslim communities in Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat as well as Saba-yoy and Thebha districts from the Songkhla province at its northern reaches, and with southern form s down through Malaysia.^[67] Historically, the Thai part of the peninsula and the Malaysian side, have been influencing each other's styles of Silat for centuries. Silat in Southern Thailand had also significant influence in the development of Thai martial art calledKrabi–krabong.^[68][20]

Silat Tua, an important Silat style that has an intimate relationship with four elements of nature (earth, water, fire and wind) as understood from its roots in animism, is said to originate fromPattani region. Silat Tua is directly translated as ‘old’ or ‘ancient’ Silat. Described as the 'Malay dance of life',Silat Tua does not has sets of rigid instructions as well as the endless pre-arranged movement patterns like most traditional martial arts, rather it is an art that begins with 'natural movement', focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of the exponent and the potential of the individual body. What is focused instead are basic principles and uses of imagery that are immortalised in freestyle movement known as atari ('dance'). As Pattani was constantly at war with the neighbouring kingdom of Siam, many combative developments in the art were made in this region leading Silat Tua to take on another name,Silat Pattani.^[31]

The Silat uniform may varies according to different schools and locality but generally can be divided into three types; training, ceremonial, and formal dress. The most important dress is for the training, which commonly consist of a baggy black trousers and a black long sleevedbaju melayu.^[69] Some schools require the practitioners to wear belts (bengkung) during training, with different colours signifying different rank, a practice adopted from the belt system ofJapanese martial arts, while some silat schools replace the bengkung with a modern buckled belt. Headdress is optional but donning a blackbandana is popular.^[69] Female practitioners may replace the bandana with an Islamic veil (tudong), or left their hair uncovered except when uttering prayers at the beginning and end of the training sessions.^[70] Asarong can also be worn along with a roll of cloth which could be used as a bag, a blanket or a weapon. In Seni Gayong, a wide red cloth sash is wrapped several times around the waist and ribs of the practitioner as a type of supple armour to protect the body against spear thrusts.^[71] Generally, every part of the uniform has a special function, for example, the headdress or bandana doubles as a bandage, and the sash may be used as weapon as well.^[69] Nevertheless, some schools use a modern uniform consisting of a T-shirt and pants topped with a shortsarong. Others may not even have any official uniform and allow the students to dress as they normally would, so that they become accustomed to fighting in their daily attire.

The ceremonial dress (baju istiadat) is more elaborate compared to the training dress and usually worn during special cultural events. This type of dress originated from the 15th century's full Malay costume, which was the trademark of warriors,panglima andhulubalang.^[72] For female practitioners, the ceremonial dress is in the form ofbaju kurung. The dress consists of the normalbaju melayu for male, but its most distinctive feature is the inclusion of a headdress calledtengkolok ortanjak and a waistcloth (sampin orlikat in Thailand^[73]).^[74] The headdress is traditionally made fromsongket cloth and they can be tied in many different styles depending on status and region. While the waistcloth is also commonly made fromsongket, some can be made frombatik andsarong cloth as well. There are a number of ways to tie it but the popular old style used by warriors was thesampin silang which allows for freedom of movement and easy access to weapons worn at the side. Full ceremonial dress also include the traditional short jacket (baju sikap), sandals (capal) and weapons.^[74][72] A poem fromHikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda describe in details the full ceremonial dress of a Malay warrior.^[75]

The final type of dress is the formal dress which commonly worn during religious functions. For male, the dress consists of the traditionalbaju melayu worn together with sampin and a black hat calledsongkok.^[76] This is considered the common style of Malay dress for male, which has been elevated to the national dress in Malaysia and Brunei. For female practitioners, the ceremonial dress is normally similar to the formal dress in the form ofbaju kurung.^[74]

The formal training area of Silat is calledgelanggang in Malay, or sometimes known asbangsal Silat. The termgelanggang literally means 'arena' or 'court', and may also refer to any space used for competitive activities. The traditionalgelanggang is located outdoors, in a specially built part of the village or a jungle clearing.^[77] It can be either in the form of sand or grass court, and would be enclosed by a simple fence made ofbamboo and covered innipah or coconut leaves to prevent outsiders from stealing secrets. The entrance of the traditionalgelanggang commonly consists of two poles (penjuru) upon which wrapped layers of cloth which have been blessed (jampi) by theguru or cikgu to prevent spirits from entering the arena. Each pole in the gelanggang is also blessed by the guru in order to 'fence in' or 'protect' (pagar) the area, and neutralize all evils or potentially evil influences in it.^[78] Practitioners are also expected to adhere to strict 'taboo' (pantang larang) whenever they are in thegelanggang to maintain discipline in training.^[79] Training start right after the night prayer orIsha and can continue up until midnight everyday, except for the night before Friday.^[80]

Before training can begin, thegelanggang must be prepared either by the guru or senior students in a ritual called "opening of training" (upacara buka gelanggang ). The purpose of this mandatory ritual is to clear the mind and to establish concentration and focus. In its traditional form, the ritual starts by cutting somelimes into water and then walking around the area while sprinkling the water onto the floor.^[81][77] Theguru walks in a pattern starting from the centre to the front-right corner, and then across to the front-left corner. They then walk backwards past the centre into the rear-right corner, across to the rear-left corner, and finally ends back in the centre. The purpose of walking backwards is to show respect to thegelanggang, and any guests that may be present, by never turning one's back to the front of the area. Once this has been done, the teacher sits in the centre and recites an invocation so the space is protected with positive energy. From the centre, the guru walks to the front-right corner and repeats the invocation while keeping the head bowed and hands crossed. The right hand is crossed over the left and they are kept at waist level. Themantra is repeated at each corner and in the same pattern as when the water was sprinkled. As a sign of humility, the guru maintains a bent posture while walking across the training area. After repeating the invocation in the centre once more, the teacher sits down andmeditates. Although most practitioners today train in modern indoorgelanggang and the invocations are often replaced with Islamic prayers,^[81] this ritual is still carried out in some form or another.^[77]

Until the early 19th century, the teaching of Silat through thegelanggang system was largely informal and the methods may vary between different schools of Silat. In 1840, Syeikh Abd.Rahman Tohir, a Silat master hailing fromPattani is said to had established a Silat education system calledGelanggang Bangsal inPendang,Kedah. The system seek to embody the various aspects of Silat including the art, defense, music and spiritual into a standard Silat education for the masses. In 1976, Haji Anuar Abdul Wahab initiated the development of a Silatcurriculum based on thegelannggang bangsal system, which in turn became the basis of Seni Silat Malaysia curriculum.^[82]

The silat performance, either in the form of competitive sport, or of highly stylized dance-like performance, are always accompanied by a type of music called 'martial arts drum' (gendang silat). Normally performed by a small orchestra, the music served to energize the performers and heighten the engagement of the audience in silat competitions and demonstrations for wedding receptions, official occasions, as well as for combat scenes in dramatic performances likeBangsawan,Mak yong orMek Mulung theaters. It is also increasingly performed on its own as music for festive occasions or casual gatherings.^[83][84]

Gendang silat is predominant across the northern region ofMalay Peninsula. The region prompted tunes and manners of playing that have been adopted as common practices by gendang silat performers elsewhere.^[84] There are two major ensemble styles originated from this region that differ in approaches to playing and musical repertoire; the west coastlagu silat style found inKedah and its neighbours, and the east coast style ofKelantan,Terengganu andPattani. In addition to these predominant styles, there are myriad vernacular styles, for example, upperPahang two-drums and a gong ensembles that resemble those of their northern neighbours, but do not use a melodic instrument.^[83]

Based on the instruments, the northern ensembles are relatively similar. Both include a pair of gendang barrel-shaped drums of two sizes, the larger of the pair is referred as the 'mother' drum (pengibu or justibu) and the smaller one as the 'child' (penganak oranak).^[83] Included in the ensemble is a hanging knobbed gong that may vary in size, shape and material construction. The gendang play loud rhythms in interlocking style, accenting specific beats. On every other beat, the knobbed gong is struck with a padded beater. Melodies are played using a reef aerophone calledserunai. It is generally blown using a circular or continuous breathing technique, and provides a lively melodic line in eighth- and sixteenth- note movement throughout the silat performance.^[84] The music is polyphonic and features a melodic line, percussive rhythmic patterns and a periodic gong unit played on the single gong. It begins in a slow tempo and accelerates until the performance climaxes.^[84][85]

Gendang silat tunes are categorised into three separate repertoires depending on their performance context. The first being the martial art pieces (lagu silat,paluan silat), which accompany combat demonstrations of silat, andmuay thai (tomoi) for wedding receptions, competitions, and other public events. They are usually named based on their origins; for exampleLagu Silat Kedah ('Kedah martial arts piece') andpaluan Kelantan ('Kelantan drumming'). Next are the processional tunes (lagu berarak) which are pieces played for short parades heralding the arrival of dignitaries such as newlyweds or government officials. They can be in the form of specific parade music or inspired from local folk tunes. There are also entertainment pieces (lagu hiburan) that are often played on the same occasions as the previous two categories, as well as in casual gatherings at private home and training centers (gelanggang). This large heterogeneous category includes among its sources folk tunes, old Malay pop songs as well as various interpretations of both global and regional tunes.^[83]

Gendang silat music in general, functions to reflect and enliven the various phases of a silat demonstration and competition. A good example of how music and movement interrelate may be seen and heard in a piece known asLagu Silat Kedah which is used as the current standard gendang silat competition piece.^[83][84]

Silat can be divided into a number of types, the ultimate form of which is duel silat. In this type, the opponents can be either one group against another or between individuals, performing either a real combat or an entertaining performance for the audience. Another type of silat is called ritual silat held upon commonly during the shamanic ritual rites and performances.^[86] For instance, the ritual silat is an integral part of the healing rite ofmain puteri, featuring an unarmed duel performed by a warrior shaman accompanied by war tune.^[87] A type of ritual silat also calledsilat yawor in Pattani, is a silat dance with akris performed within theBurung Petala Processions. Ritual silat is also performed during the ritual ceremony of paying homage to either martial or performing art masters, known asadat sembah guru orwai khru in Southern Thailand. Silat practitioners believe that by showing respect to their teacher during the ceremony, it will ensure their success during the performance. It is a traditional pre-performance rite that contributes to their confidence and safety that silat practitioners maintain no matter what type of silat they perform.^[86]

The third type of silat is called silat dance that aims to highlight the dramatic features of the silat's movements, poses and its transitions. This type of silat includes both solo and pair performances and comes with elegant dance-like sequences, performed with the accompaniment silat music.^[86] It functions as a means of entertainment or celebration through dance and may sometimes used for light contact game. Silat dance is commonly incorporated in either highly choreographed performances like in traditional theatres and demonstrations, or in more spontaneous performances like in wedding silat.^[88] It is usually incorporated in dramatic performances likeBangsawan,Mak yong orMek Mulung theatres. An example of silat from this category is calledsilat taghina in Southern Thailand normally performed with slow tempo music.^[86] Other example which is the most prominent of this category is calledsilat pulut. Literally means 'sticky rice silat' in Malay, it was named after thesticky rice orpulut which traditionally presented to players after performance. It goes by various other names such asgayong pulut,silat tari ('dance silat'),silat sembah ('obeisance silat'),silat pengantin ('wedding silat') andsilat bunga ('flower silat').

Silat pulut utilises agility in attacking and defending oneself.^[89] In this exercise, the two partners begin some distance apart and perform freestyle movements while trying to match each other's flow. One attacks when they notice an opening in the opponent's defences. Without interfering with the direction of force, the defender then parries and counterattacks. The other partner follows by parrying and attacking. This would go on with both partners disabling and counter-attacking their opponent with locking, grappling and other techniques. Contact between the partners is generally kept light but faster and stronger attacks may be agreed upon beforehand. In another variation which is also found in Chineseqinna, the initial attack is parried and then the defender applies a lock on the attacker. The attacker follows the flow of the lock and escapes it while putting a lock on the opponent. Both partners go from lock to lock until one is incapable of escaping or countering.

Silat pulut is held during leisure time, the completion of silat instruction, official events, weddings or festivals where it is accompanied by the rhythm ofgendang silat (silat drums) ortanji silat baku (traditional silat music).^[90] As with atomoi match, the speed of the music adapts to the performer's pace.

British colonists introduced western training systems by incorporating the police andsepoys (soldiers who were local citizens) to handle the nation's defence forces which at that time were receiving opposition from former Malay fighters. Consequently, silat teachers were very cautious in letting their art become apparent because the colonists had experience in fighting Malay warriors.^[90] Thus silat pulut provided an avenue for exponents to hone their skills without giving themselves away. It could also be used as preliminary training before students are allowed to spar.

Despite its satirical appearance, silat pulut actually enables students to learn moves and their applications without having to be taught set techniques. Partners who frequently practice together can exchange hard blows without injuring each other by adhering to the principle of not meeting force with force. What starts off as a matching of striking movements is usually followed by successions of locks and may end in groundwork, a pattern that is echoed in the modernmixed martial arts.

Silat performance in Southern Thailand can be categorised in a number of ways. Based on the tempo of movements, it can be divided into four types,Silat Tari Yuema consisting medium-paced movements,Silat Tari Lagoh Galae with its fast sequences,Silat Tari Eena with its slow, flowing and beautiful movement sets, and lastlySilat Tari Sapaelae with its very quick movements imitating a warrior in battle.^[91]

Another categorisation is based on the mode of the performance and the type of movement featured, either with weapons or bare hand.Silat Yatoh is performed as a contest using the rules of attack and defense, in which a pair of combatants take turns attacking and defending. Secondly,Silat Tari refers to a silat featuring graceful bare-handed stances and movement sequences choreographed to the music's tempo, which traditionally performed for royalty and high dignitaries. The third type isSilat Kayor that features combat usingkris usually performed at night for entertainment.^[91]

The exploits of Malay warriors are prominently featured in many classical texts in Malay history. TheMalay Annals for example, contains stories of heroic struggles of a number of warrior figures likeBadang,^[92] or even a female warrior likeTun Fatimah. Although not specifically mentioning the term 'silat', the annals did narrates the demonstration ofberlayam^[93] (dancing with a sword and shield^[94]) of a Melakan warrior, an indication that the silat's dance-like and graceful movements have been in existence since the days ofMelaka Sultanate. In addition to the annals, accounts of the adventure of Malay warriors can also be found in another classical text,Hikayat Hang Tuah. The epic literature tells the stories ofHang Tuah and his four companions, who with their exceptional skill in martial art and warfare, rose in fame to become the Melaka's foremostHulubalang. The text also recounts arguably the most famous silat duel in literature, that is the kris-fighting between Hang Tuah and one of his companions,Hang Jebat.^[95] Various artistic genres have attempted to re-interpret and re-invent this epic over at least the last hundred years. TheHikayat Hang Tuah, in full or in part, has been recast as movies, short stories or novels, comics, plays, musicals, stories, novels and poems.

Another notable literary text, theHikayat Merong Mahawangsa contains similar theme of the adventure of the warrior kingMerong Mahawangsa who founded the ancientKedah state. InHikayat Malim Deman, the detailed silat movements are mentioned in apantun to describe the agility and powerful martial art skill of the main character in defeating his foes in his quest.^[15] By the 18th century, the term 'silat' was first mentioned in a literary text calledMisa Melayu, though it tends to refer as ‘martial art’ in general.^[11] Silat movements orbunga and dance, are the main components of the tradition ofbersilat, that became part of the repertoire ofHikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda.^[14] TheHikayat Pahang, a historical literature that covers the period of the 19th century, is concerned on several wars fought by the state ofPahang likePahang Civil War andKlang War, and also contain the exploits of famous silat masters in Pahang history, likeTok Gajah,Dato' Bahaman andMat Kilau.^[13]

Malayoral literature also contains stories of prominent warriors, some of which are associated with real historical figures, while others are considered folk tales. The legend ofSiti Wan Kembang is one of such stories, that recounts the life of a Queen thought to have ruledKelantan in the 17th century. She was described as an expert sword fighter and horse rider who lead and won various battles. The legend ofWalinong Sari on the other hand, tells the story of a princess ofPahang renowned for her mastery in silat who had defeated a celestial king.

Silat have been present in Malay cinema since the 1950s. Major studios centred inSingapore,Shaw Brothers andCathay-Keris, have produced a number of well-known classics in a genre known aspurba ('ancient') films,^[96] that features the traditional Malay warriors and silat,^[97] and largely based on fictional stories, folklores or even history.^[98] One particularly famous title wasHang Tuah released in 1956. It is based on theHikayat Hang Tuah and recognised as the first Malay movie to be fully shot inEastman colour film. Other notable titles includeSemerah Padi (1956),Musang Berjanggut (1959),Pendekar Bujang Lapok (1959),Seri Mersing (1961),Hang Jebat (1961),Panglima Besi (1964),Enam Jahanam (1969) andSerikandi (1969).

By the late 70s and throughout the 1980s, when the centre of Malay film productions was shifted toKuala Lumpur, the popularity ofpurba films began to wane when Malay cinema was dominated by more female-oriented genres such as women's films, family melodramas and romance. There were however still emerged a number of fully-fledged and better choreographed action-martial arts films likeLoceng Maut (1976),Pendekar (1977) andAnak Sulong Tujuh Keturunan (1982).^[99] While purba films became increasingly rare on-screen in the 90s, two films revisited the story of Hang Tuah, but combining bothpurba and modern setting,Tuah (1990) and XX-Ray II (1995).^[100] Similar setting are also applied in ananimated movie,Silat Legenda (1998), again based on the legend of Hang Tuah. In the year 2000s, silat was featured to varying degrees of importance in popular Malay movies such asJiwa Taiko,Gong,KL Gangster,Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam, and the colour remake ofOrang Minyak. In 2004,Puteri Gunung Ledang was released, it was a remake of apurba film of 1961 ofthe same title, and was promoted as an epic romance that draws on episodic tale ofHang Tuah. It was Malaysia's first big-budget movie that featured two highly publicised fights choreographed by a silat exponent.^[100]

By 2010s, fully-fledged action-martial arts films regained its popularity in Malaysia, which successfully embraced the modern setting for its plot, rather than the traditionalpurba-style. Films likeWira (2019) andGeran (2019) are among the examples.Queens of Langkasuka, released in 2008, is the first Thai film to prominently feature silat. Among the few other Thai movies to do so is 2008'sOng-Bak 2 which only briefly features a style of tiger silat. The 2014 Brunei movieYasmine is about a teenage female protagonist who learns silat.^[101]

Purba genre also made its way to the television and reached its peak during the 1990s when directors like Uwei Shaari strove to depict silat in its original form by casting martial artists rather than famous actors. Series from that period such asKeris Lok Tujuh,Pendekar: Bayangan Harta andKeris Hitam Bersepuh Emas are still regarded as the country's best costume dramas before the genre began to decline in Malaysia after the early 2000s. Various styles of silat are regularly showcased in martial arts-themed documentary serials likeMahaguru,Gelanggang andGerak Tangkas.

In 2019, Malaysia's very own 'Ultraman Ribut' joins the ranks of the legendary 50-decade spanning Japanese giant superheroes in theUltra Galaxy Fight: The Absolute Conspiracy mini-series. Ultraman Ribut uses a unique fighting style which is a mix of acrobatics and silat martial arts techniques to fight off monsters.

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