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TheSpanish Golden Age (Spanish:Siglo de Oro,[ˈsiɣloðeˈoɾo], "Golden Century";c. 1500 – 1681)[1] was a period ofliterature and thearts in Spain that coincided with the political rise of theSpanish Empire under theCatholic Monarchs of Spain, and theSpanish Habsburgs.[2][3]
The Spanish Golden Age is broadly associated with the reigns ofIsabella I,Ferdinand II,Charles V,Philip II,Philip III, andPhilip IV, when Spain was at the peak of its power and influence in Europe and the world.[4]
The Spanish Golden Age began after the union of KingFerdinand II of Aragon and QueenIsabella I of Castile, which brought stability following years of conflict. After the conquest ofAl-Andalus (Muslim Spain) and theexpulsion of the Jews, the various Christian kingdoms under the Catholic Monarchs of Spain unified into a single state.[2] This era saw a flourishing of literature and the arts inSpain. The most significant patron of Spanish art and culture during this time wasKing Philip II (1556–1598).[5]
During this period, Philip II's royal palace,El Escorial, known in its own time as theeighth wonder of the world,[6] attracted some of Europe's greatest architects and painters, includingEl Greco. These artists introduced foreign styles to Spanish art, contributing to the development of a uniquely Spanish style of painting.[5]
The start of the Golden Age can be placed in 1492, with the end of theReconquista, the voyages ofChristopher Columbus to theNew World, theexpulsion of Jews from Spain, and the publication ofAntonio de Nebrija'sGrammar of the Castilian Language.[3] Amongst scholars of the period, it is generally accepted that it came to an end around the time of theTreaty of the Pyrenees (1659), that concluded theFranco-Spanish War of 1635 to 1659.[3] Others, however,[who?] extend the Golden Age up to 1681 with the death ofPedro Calderón de la Barca,[1] the last great writer of the age. Generally, it is divided into aPlateresque/Renaissance period and the early part of theSpanish Baroque period.
The Spanish Golden Age spans the work ofMiguel de Cervantes, the author ofDon Quixote de la Mancha; and ofLope de Vega, Spain's most prolific playwright, who wrote around 1,000 plays during his lifetime, of which over 400 survive to the present day. Lope de Vega,Luis de Gongora,Quevedo, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, and many other prominent poets attended the famousMedrano Academy (also known as the Poetic Academy of Madrid) established bySebastián Francisco de Medrano in 1616.[7][8][9]
Diego Velázquez, regarded as one of the most influential painters of European history and a greatly respected artist in his own time, was patronized by KingPhilip IV and his chief minister, theCount-Duke of Olivares.
What is widely acknowledged as some of Spain's greatest music was written during this period. Composers such asTomás Luis de Victoria,Cristóbal de Morales,Francisco Guerrero,Luis de Milán andAlonso Lobo helped to shapeRenaissance music and the styles ofcounterpoint andpolychoral music. Their influence lasted long into theBaroque period, resulting in a revolution of music.
During theItalian Renaissance, few great artists from Italy visited Spain, but the Italian holdings and relationships established byFerdinand of Aragon, Queen Isabella's husband and, later, Spain's sole monarch, prompted a steady flow of intellectuals across theMediterranean betweenValencia,Seville, andFlorence.Luis de Morales, one of the leading exponents of SpanishMannerist painting, retained a distinctly Spanish style in his work, reminiscent ofmedieval art. Spanish art, particularly Morales's, was notable for its mysticism and religious themes, which were encouraged by theCounter-Reformation and by the patronage of Spain'sCatholic monarchs and aristocracy. Spanish rule ofNaples was important for making connections between Italian and Spanish art, with many Spanish administrators bringing Italian works back to Spain.
Known for his unique expressionistic style, which elicited both puzzlement and admiration,El Greco ("the Greek") was originally from the island of Crete. He was not Spanish but Greek by birth. El Greco studied the great Italian masters of his time—Titian,Tintoretto, andMichelangelo—during his stay in Italy from 1568 to 1577. According to legend, El Greco once claimed he would paint a mural as good as one of Michelangelo's if one of the Italian artist's murals was demolished first. After falling out of favor in Italy, he found a new home inToledo, central Spain. During this period, Spain was an ideal environment for the Venetian-trained painter, with art flourishing throughout the empire and Toledo being a great place to receive commissions. His paintings of the city became models for a new European tradition in landscapes and influenced the work of laterDutch masters. In his lifetime, El Greco was influential in creating a style based on impressions and emotion, characterized by elongated fingers and vibrant color and brushwork. His works uniquely featured faces that captured expressions of somber attitudes and withdrawal while still having his subjects bear witness to the terrestrial world.
Diego Velázquez was born on June 6, 1599, inSeville, to parents of minor nobility and was the eldest of six children. Widely regarded as one of Spain's most important and influential artists, he became a court painter for KingPhilip IV and gained increasing demand across Europe for his portraits of statesmen, aristocrats, and clergymen. His portraits of the King, his chief minister the Count-Duke of Olivares, and the Pope showcased his belief in artistic realism and a style comparable to many of theDutch masters. Following theThirty Years' War, Velázquez met the Marqués de Spinola and painted his famousSurrender of Breda (1635), celebratingSpinola's victory at Breda in 1625. Spinola was impressed by Velázquez's ability to convey emotion through realism in both his portraits and landscapes, the latter of which became a lasting influence on Western painting. Velázquez's friendship withBartolomé Esteban Murillo, a leading Spanish painter of the next generation, ensured the enduring influence of his artistic approach.
Velázquez's most famous painting is the celebratedLas Meninas (1656, Prado Museum in Madrid) in which the artist includes himself as one of the subjects.
The religious element in Spanish art gained prominence in many circles during the Counter-Reformation. The austere, ascetic, and severe works ofFrancisco de Zurbarán exemplified this trend in Spanish art, alongside the compositions ofTomás Luis de Victoria. Philip IV actively patronized artists whose views aligned with his perspectives on the Counter-Reformation and religion. The mysticism in Zurbarán's work, influenced bySaint Theresa of Avila, became a defining characteristic of Spanish art in subsequent generations. Influenced byMichelangelo da Caravaggio and the Italian masters, Zurbarán dedicated himself to an artistic expression of religion and faith. His paintings ofSt. Francis of Assisi, theImmaculate Conception, and theCrucifixion ofChrist reflected a significant aspect of seventeenth-century Spanish culture, set against the backdrop of religious conflict across Europe. Zurbarán diverged from Velázquez's sharp realist interpretation of art and, to some extent, drew inspiration from the emotive content ofEl Greco and earlier Mannerist painters. Nevertheless, Zurbarán respected and maintained the lighting and physical nuance characteristic of Velázquez's style.
It is unknown whether Zurbarán had the opportunity to study Caravaggio's paintings; nonetheless, he adopted Caravaggio's realistic use ofchiaroscuro. The painter who may have had the greatest influence on his characteristically severe compositions wasJuan Sánchez Cotán.[10] Additionally,polychrome sculpture—which had reached a high level of sophistication in Seville by the time of Zurbarán's apprenticeship and surpassed that of the local painters—served as another important stylistic model for the young artist. The work ofJuan Martínez Montañés is particularly close to Zurbarán's in spirit.
Zurbarán painted directly from nature and frequently utilized the lay figure in his study of draperies, in which he was particularly skilled. He had a notable talent for depicting white draperies, leading to numerous representations of the white-robedCarthusians in his works. Zurbarán is said to have adhered to these meticulous methods throughout his career, which was successful and spent entirely in Spain. His subjects were predominantly austere and ascetic religious scenes, often depicting the spirit subduing the flesh. These compositions were frequently simplified to a single figure. His style is more reserved and subdued than Caravaggio's, with a color tone that is often bluish. Exceptional effects are achieved through precisely finished foregrounds, primarily utilizing light and shade.
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo began his art studies underJuan del Castillo in Seville. The city's great commercial importance at the time ensured that he was also subject to influences from other regions, which enabled him to become familiar withFlemish painting. His first works were influenced byZurbarán,Jusepe de Ribera andAlonso Cano, with whom he shared a strongly realist approach. As his painting developed, however, his more important works evolved into a polished style that suited the bourgeois and aristocratic tastes of the time, especially hisRoman Catholic religious works.
In 1642, at the age of 26, he moved toMadrid. While there, it is highly likely that he became familiar with the work ofVelázquez and that he viewed the work of Venetian and Flemish masters in the royal collections; the influence of both can be seen in the rich colors and softly modeled forms of his later work.[11] Murillo returned to Seville in 1645, where in the same year he painted 13 canvases for the monastery of St. Francisco el Grande. This proved a boost to his reputation. Following the completion of a pair of pictures for theSeville Cathedral, he began to specialize in the themes that brought him his greatest successes: Mary and the Child Jesus, and theImmaculate Conception.
After another period in Madrid from 1658 to 1660, he returned to Seville. There, he was one of the founders of theAcademia de Bellas Artes (Academy of Fine Arts), sharing its direction in 1660 with the architectFrancisco Herrera the Younger. This was his period of greatest activity, during which he received numerous important commissions, among them the altarpieces for the Augustinian monastery and the paintings forSanta María la Blanca (completed in 1665). He died in 1682.
ThePalace of Charles V is a Renaissance construction located on the top of the hill of the Assabica, inside theNasrid fortification of theAlhambra. It was commanded byCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to establish his residence close to the Alhambra palaces. Although theCatholic Monarchs had already altered some rooms of the Alhambra after the conquest of the city in 1492, Charles V intended to construct a permanent residence befitting anemperor. The project was given toPedro Machuca, an architect whose biography and influences are poorly understood. Even if accounts that place Machuca in theatelier of Michelangelo are accepted, at the time of the construction of the palace in 1527 the latter had yet to design the majority of his architectural works. At the time, Spanish architecture was immersed in thePlateresque style, still with traces ofGothic origin. Machuca built a palace corresponding stylistically toMannerism, a mode still in its infancy in Italy.
El Escorial is the historical residence of the king of Spain. It is one of theSpanish royal sites and functions as a monastery, royal palace, museum, and school. It is located about 45 kilometres (28 mi) northwest of the Spanish capital, Madrid, in the town ofSan Lorenzo de El Escorial. El Escorial comprises two architectural complexes of great historical and cultural significance: El Real Monasterio de El Escorial itself andLa Granjilla de La Fresneda, a royal hunting lodge and monastic retreat about five kilometers away. These sites have a dual nature; that is to say, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, they were places in which the temporal power of theSpanish monarchyand the ecclesiastical predominance of theRoman Catholic religion in Spain found a common architectural manifestation. El Escorial was at once, a monastery and a Spanish royal palace. Originally a property of theHieronymite monks, it is now a monastery of theOrder of Saint Augustine.
Philip II of Spain, reacting to theProtestant Reformation sweeping through Europe during the sixteenth century, devoted much of his lengthy reign (1556–1598) and much of his seemingly inexhaustible supply of New World silver to stemming the Protestant tide sweeping through Europe while simultaneously fighting the IslamicOttoman Empire. His protracted efforts were, in the long run, partly successful. However, the samecounter-reformational impulse had a much more benign expression thirty years earlier, in Philip's decision to build the complex at El Escorial.
Philip engaged the Spanish architect,Juan Bautista de Toledo, to be his collaborator in the design of El Escorial. Juan Bautista had spent the greater part of his career in Rome, where he had worked on thebasilica of St. Peter's, and inNaples, where he had served the king's viceroy, whose recommendation brought him to the king's attention. Philip appointed him architect-royal in 1559, and together they designed El Escorial as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world.
ThePlaza Mayor in Madrid, built during theHabsburg period, is a centralplaza in the city of Madrid, Spain. It is located only a few blocks away from another famous plaza, thePuerta del Sol. The Plaza Mayor is rectangular in shape, measuring 129 by 94 meters, and is surrounded by three-story residential buildings having 237 balconies facing the Plaza. It has a total of nine entranceways. TheCasa de la Panadería, serving municipal and cultural functions, dominates the Plaza Mayor.
The origins of the Plaza date back to 1589 when Philip II of Spain askedJuan de Herrera, a renowned Renaissance architect, to discuss a plan to remodel the busy and chaotic area of the old Plaza del Arrabal. Juan de Herrera was the architect who designed the first project in 1581 to remodel the old Plaza del Arrabal but construction did not start until 1617, during Philip III's reign. The king askedJuan Gómez de Mora to continue with the project, and he finished the porticoes in 1619. Nevertheless, the Plaza Mayor as we know it today is the work of the architectJuan de Villanueva who was entrusted with its reconstruction in 1790 after a spate of big fires.Giambologna's equestrian statue of Philip III dates to 1616, but it was not placed in the center of the square until 1848.
Unlike most cathedrals in Spain, construction of this cathedral had to await the acquisition of theNasrid kingdom of Granada from its Muslim rulers in 1492. While its very early plans hadGothic designs, such as are evident in theRoyal Chapel of Granada by Enrique Egas, the construction of the church in the main occurred at a time when Renaissance designs were supplanting the Gothic regnant in Spanish architecture of prior centuries. Foundations for the church were laid by the architect Egas starting from 1518 to 1523 atop the site of the city's main mosque; by 1529, Egas was replaced byDiego de Siloé who labored for nearly four decades on the structure from ground to cornice, planning thetriforium and five naves instead of the usual three. Most unusually, he created a circular capilla mayor rather than a semicircular apse, perhaps inspired by Italian ideas for circular 'perfect buildings' (e.g., inAlberti's works). Within its structure the cathedral combines other orders of architecture. It took 181 years for the cathedral to be built.
Subsequent architects included Juan de Maena (1563–1571), followed by Juan de Orea (1571–1590), and Ambrosio de Vico (1590–?). In 1667,Alonso Cano, working with Gaspar de la Peña, altered the initial plan for the main façade, introducingBaroque elements. The magnificence of the building would be even greater if the two large 81-meter towers foreseen in the plans had been built; however, the project remained incomplete for various reasons, including finance.
Granada Cathedral had been intended to become the royal mausoleum for Charles I of Spain, but Philip II of Spain moved the site for his father and subsequent kings to El Escorial outside of Madrid.
The main chapel contains two kneeling effigies of the Catholic King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabel, by Pedro de Mena y Medrano. The busts of Adam and Eve were made byAlonso Cano. The Chapel of the Trinity has a marvelous retablo with paintings by El Greco, Alonso Cano, andJosé de Ribera (TheSpagnoletto).
TheCathedral of Valladolid, like all the buildings of the lateSpanish Renaissance built by Herrera and his followers, is known for its purist and sober decoration, with its style being typical Spanishclasicismo, also called "Herrerian". Using classical and Renaissance decorative motifs, Herrerian buildings are characterized by their extremely sober decorations, their formal austerity, and its like for monumentality.
The cathedral has its origins in a late Gothic college that started in the late 15th century. Before becoming the capital of Spain, Valladolid was not a bishopric and thus lacked the right to build a cathedral. Soon enough, though, the Collegiate became obsolete due to the changes of preference during the period, and thanks to the newly established episcopal in the city, the Town Council decided to build a cathedral that would share similar architecture to neighboring capitals.
Had the building been finished, it would have been one of the biggest cathedrals in Spain. When the building was started, Valladolid was thede facto capital of Spain, housing King Philip II and his court. However, due to strategic and geopolitical reasons, by the 1560s, the capital was moved to Madrid, making Valladolid lose its political and economic relevance. By the late sixteenth century, Valladolid's importance had been severely reduced, and many of the monumental projects, such as the cathedral, started during its prosperous years, had to be modified due to a lack of proper finance. Thus, the building that stands now could not be finished completely, and due to several additions built during the 17th and 18th centuries, it lacks the purported stylistical uniformity sought by Herrera. Although mainly faithful to the project of Juan de Herrera, the building would undergo many modifications.
Tomás Luis de Victoria, a Spanish composer of the sixteenth century, mainly of choral music, is widely regarded as one of the greatest Spanish classical composers. He joined the cause ofIgnatius of Loyola in the fight against theReformation and, in 1575, became a priest. He lived for a short time in Italy, where he became acquainted with the polyphonic work ofGiovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Like Zurbarán, Victoria mixed the technical qualities of Italian art with the religion and culture of his native Spain. He invigorated his work with emotional appeal, experimental mystical rhythm, and choruses. He broke from the dominant tendency among his contemporaries by avoiding complex counterpoint, preferring longer, simpler, less technical, and more mysterious melodies, and employingdissonance in ways that the Italian members of theRoman School shunned. He demonstrated considerable invention in musical thought by connecting the tone and emotion of his music to those of his lyrics, particularly in hismotets. Like Velázquez, Victoria was employed by the monarch – in Victoria's case, in the service of the queen. TheOfficium Defunctorum (Requiem) he wrote upon her death in 1603 is regarded as one of his most enduring and complex works.
Francisco Guerrero, a Spanish composer of the 16th century. He was second only to Victoria[clarification needed] as a major Spanish composer of church music in the second half of the 16th century. Of all theSpanish Renaissance composers, he was the one who mostly lived and worked in Spain. Others, e.g., Morales and Victoria, spent large portions of their careers in Italy. Guerrero's music was both religious and secular, unlike that of Victoria and Morales, the two other Spanish 16th-century composers of the first rank. He wrote numerous secular songs and instrumental pieces, in addition to masses, motets, and passions. He was able to capture an astonishing variety of moods in his music, from elation to despair, longing, depression, and devotion. His music remained popular for hundreds of years, especially in cathedrals in Latin America. Stylistically, he preferredhomophonic textures rather than Spanish contemporaries. One feature of his style is how he anticipated functional harmonic usage: there is a case of aMagnificat discovered in Lima, Peru, once thought to be an anonymous 18th century work, which turned out to be his work.
Victoria's work was complemented byAlonso Lobo – a man Victoria respected as his equal. Lobo's work—also choral and religious in its content – stressed the austere, minimalist nature of religious music. Lobo sought out a medium between the emotional intensity of Victoria and the technical ability ofPalestrina; the solution he found became the foundation of theBaroque musical style in Spain.
Regarded as one of the finest composers in Europe around the middle of the 16th century,[12]Cristóbal de Morales was born inSeville in 1500 and employed in Rome from 1535 until 1545 by theVatican. Almost all of his music is religious, and all of it is vocal, though instruments may have been used in an accompanying role in performance. Morales also wrote two masses on the famousL'homme armé melody, which was often set by composers in the late 15th and 16th centuries. One of these masses is for four voices, and the other for five. The four voice mass uses the tune as a strict cantus firmus, and the setting for five voices treats it more freely, migrating it from one voice to another.[13]
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The Spanish Golden Age was a period of remarkable growth inpoetry,prose, anddrama, driven by Spain's deep engagement with Europeanliterary andphilosophical currents, particularly its strong connections toRenaissance Italy. A Spanish college inBologna (1360s) enabled scholars likeAntonio de Nebrija to study abroad, whileAlfonso V of Aragon transformedNaples into a cultural hub (1442). Spanish intellectuals traveled toItaly, absorbing influences fromPetrarch,Boccaccio, andSannazaro, while Italian scholars were welcomed in Spain. This exchange also revived interest inclassical literature (Virgil,Horace,Ovid) andNeoplatonism, enriching Spanish language and thought.[14]Francisco de Medrano, alyric poet fromSeville, is considered one of the best of the Spanish imitators of Horace, comparing favorably in that respect withLuis de León.[15][16]
Regarded by many as one of the finest works in any language,El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha byMiguel de Cervantes was the firstnovel published in Europe; it gave Cervantes a stature in the Spanish-speaking world comparable to his contemporaryWilliam Shakespeare in English. The novel, like Spain itself, was caught between theMiddle Ages and the modern world. A veteran of theBattle of Lepanto (1571), Cervantes had fallen on hard times in the late 1590s and was imprisoned for debt in 1597, and some believe that during these years he began work on his best-remembered novel. The first part of the novel was published in 1605; the second in 1615, a year before the author's death.Don Quixote resembled both the medieval, chivalric romances of an earlier time and the novels of the early modern world. It parodied classical morality and chivalry, found comedy in knighthood, and criticized social structures and the perceived madness of Spain's rigid society. The work has endured to the present day as a landmark in world literary history, and it was an international hit in its own time, interpreted variously as a satirical comedy, social commentary and forebear of self-referential literature.
A contemporary ofCervantes,Lope de Vega played a key role in shaping Spanish commercial drama, known ascomedia, by defining its essential genres and structures throughout the 17th century.[17] Allcomedia was reviewed by Dr.Sebastián Francisco de Medrano, acommissioner of theSpanish Inquisition, who served as itsofficial censor.[9]
Although he also wroteprose andpoetry, Lope de Vega is best remembered for his plays, particularly those rooted inSpanish history. Like Cervantes, he served in theSpanish army and was deeply interested in thenobility. Lope de Vega’s vast body of work—ranging fromBiblical andclassical mythology tolegendary and contemporary Spanish history—often incorporatedhumor, much like Cervantes. He frequently transformed conventionalmoral plays by infusing them withwit,cynicism, and comedic elements, aiming primarily to entertain the public. His ability to blendmorality,comedy,drama, and popular appeal has drawn comparisons toShakespeare.
As a social critic, Lope de Vega—like Cervantes—challenged traditional Spanish institutions, including thearistocracy,chivalry, and rigid moral codes. His artistic approach contrasted with the religious asceticism ofFrancisco Zurbarán. Hiscloak-and-sword plays, which combined intrigue,romance, and comedy, influenced his literary successor,Pedro Calderón de la Barca, who continued the tradition into the late 17th century.[18]
This period also produced some of the most important Spanish works of poetry. The introduction and influence of Italian Renaissance verse are apparent perhaps most vividly in the works ofGarcilaso de la Vega and illustrate a profound influence on later poets. Mystical literature in Spanish reached its summit with the works ofSan Juan de la Cruz andTeresa of Ávila. Baroque poetry was dominated by the contrasting styles ofFrancisco de Quevedo andLuis de Góngora; both had a lasting influence on subsequent writers and even on the Spanish language itself.[19]
Lope de Vega was a gifted poet of his own, and there were a vast quantity of remarkable poets at that time, though less known:Francisco de Rioja,Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola,Lupercio Leonardo de Argensola,Bernardino de Rebolledo,Rodrigo Caro, and Andrés Rey de Artieda. Another poet wasSor Juana Inés de la Cruz, from the Spanish colonies overseas inNew Spain (modern dayMexico).
Thepicaresque genre flourished in this era, describing the life ofpícaros, living by their wits in a decadent society. Distinguished examples areEl buscón, byFrancisco de Quevedo,Guzmán de Alfarache byMateo Alemán,Estebanillo González and the anonymously publishedLazarillo de Tormes (1554), which created the genre.
Other well-known playwrights of the period include:
As elsewhere in Europe, Spanish scholars participated in thehumanist recovery and theorizing of Greek and Roman rhetorics. Early Spanish humanists includeAntonio Nebrija andJuan Luis Vives. Spanish rhetoricians who discussedCiceronianism includeJuan Lorenzo Palmireno andPedro Juan Núñez. Famous SpanishRamists includeFrancisco Sánchez de las Brozas,Pedro Juan Núñez, Fadrique Furió Ceriol, and Luis de Verga. Many other rhetoricians turned to Greek rhetorics fromHermogenes andLonginus which were preserved byByzantine scholars, especiallyGeorge of Trebizond. These Byzantine-inspired Spanish rhetoricians include Antonio Lull,Pedro Juan Núñez, andLuis de Granada. There were also many translators ofprogymnasmata, includingFrancisco de Vergara, Francisco Escobar,Juan de Mal Lara, Juan Pérez, Antonio Lull,Juan Lorenzo Palmireno, andPedro Juan Núñez.[22] Another important Spanish rhetorician isCypriano Soarez, whose rhetorical handbook was a key textbook in theJesuitRatio studiorum which was used in Jesuit education throughout theSpanish empire.[23] Diego de Valadés'sRhetorica christiana is the first Western rhetoric published by a native of México.[24] Besides Soarez'sDe arte rhetorica, the progymnasmata byPedro Juan Núñez was also published inMexico City. Examples ofNahua oratory (huehuetlatolli) were collected byAndrés de Olmos andBernardino de Sahagún.[25]
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