Sigismund III Vasa (Polish:Zygmunt III Waza,Lithuanian:Žygimantas Vaza; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632N.S.) wasKing of Poland andGrand Duke of Lithuania from 1587 to 1632 and, asSigismund,King of Sweden from 1592 to 1599. He was the first Polish sovereign from theHouse of Vasa. Religiously zealous, he imposedCatholicism across the vast realm, and his crusades against neighbouring states marked Poland's largest territorial expansion. As an enlightened despot, he presided over an era ofprosperity and achievement, further distinguished by the transfer of the country's capital fromKraków toWarsaw.
Sigismund attempted to holdabsolute power in all his dominions and frequently undermined parliament. He suppressed internal opposition, strengthened Catholic influence and granted privileges to theJesuits, whom he employed as advisors and spies during theCounter-Reformation. He actively interfered in the affairs of neighbouring countries; his successfulinvasion of Russia during theTime of Troubles resulted in the seizure ofSmolensk and occupation of Moscow, resulting in Poland's historical greatest territorial extent. Sigismund's army also defeated theOttoman forces in southeastern Europe, which hastened the downfall of SultanOsman II. However, the Polish–Swedish conflict had a less favourable outcome. After a series of skirmishes ending in a truce, KingGustavus Adolphus of Sweden launched a campaign against the Commonwealth and annexed parts ofPolish Livonia.
Sigismund to this day remains a controversial figure in Poland. He is one of the country's most recognisablemonarchs. His long reign partially coincided with thePolish Golden Age, the apex in the prestige, power and economic influence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. On the other hand, it was also during his rule that the seeds of decline surfaced. Considerable contributions to the arts and architecture as well as military victories were tarnished by intrigues and religious persecutions. He was commemorated in Warsaw bySigismund's Column, one of the city's chief landmarks and the first secular monument in the form of a column inmodern history. It was commissioned after Sigismund's death by his son and successor,Władysław IV.
Born on 20 June 1566 atGripsholm Castle, Sigismund was the second child and only son ofCatherine Jagiellon and Grand DukeJohn,[2][3] who was a son of KingGustav I of Sweden. The couple was being held prisoner at Gripsholm since 1563 when John staged a failed rebellion against his deranged brotherEric XIV of Sweden.[4] AlthoughProtestant Christians were growing political wing in Poland at the time, Sigismund was raised as aCatholic.[2] His mother Catherine was the daughter of Polish kingSigismund the Old andBona Sforza ofMilan, all of whom where practicing Catholics.[2] Sigismund's older sister Isabella died aged two in 1566.[5] His younger sisterAnna was aLutheran, but the close relationship between the two siblings remained unchanged until her death in 1625.[6]
In October 1567, Sigismund and his parents were released from prison at the request of his uncleCharles.[7][8] In January 1569, Eric XIV was deposed and Sigismund's father ascended the throne of Sweden as John III.[9] He maintained good relations with his father despite John's second marriage toGunilla Bielke, a Protestant noble lady of lower status and Catherine's formermaid of honour.[10] In 1589, Sigismund's half-brotherJohn, the future Duke ofÖstergötland, was born.[11]
As a child, Sigismund was tutored in both Polish and Swedish, thus making him bilingual.[10] He was also proficient in German, Italian, andLatin.[12][13] Catherine ensured that her son was educated in the spirit of Catholicism and Polish patriotism; the young prince was made aware of his blood connection to theJagiellonian dynasty which ruled Poland in itsfinest period for two hundred years.[10][14] Although Sigismund in his youth enjoyed reading and learning, observers did not acknowledge his intelligence.[15] He was handsome, rather tall, and of slim build,[16] but timid and an introvert who became heavily influenced by the teachings of the church.[17] Nevertheless, Sigismund was undoubtedly multitalented and artistically inclined.[17]
The outcome of the election was strongly contested by factions of the Polish nobility that backed the candidacy of ArchdukeMaximilian III of Austria, wholaunched a military expedition.[22] When the news reached Sigismund in Sweden, he crossed theBaltic and landed in Poland on 7 October, immediately agreeing to grant royal privileges to theSejm (parliament) in the hope of calming the opposition and settling the disputed election.[23] He was proclaimed king by TreasurerJan Dulski on behalf ofCrown Marshal Andrzej Opaliński, and after arriving in the Royal Capital City ofKraków he was crowned on 27 December atWawel Cathedral.[24]
Sigismund's position was solidified whenJan Zamoyski defeated Maximilian at theBattle of Byczyna and took him prisoner.[25] At the request ofPope Sixtus V, the Archduke was then released and in turn surrendered his claim to Poland in 1589.[26] He was also successful in maintaining peace with his powerful southern neighbour by marrying ArchduchessAnne of Habsburg in 1592.[27] Simultaneously, he secured an alliance withCatholic Austria against Protestant foes.[27]
When his father died, Sigismund was granted permission by the Polish Diet to claim theSwedish crown, which he had inherited from his father.[28] The Swedes, who previously declared John III a Catholic conspirator and traitor, became lenient when the new monarch pledged to respectLutheranism as the country's new state religion.[29] Sigismund was crowned atUppsala on 19 February 1594,[30] but his promise to uphold the Protestant faith in Sweden began on shaky ground, as demonstrated by the presence of a papalnuncio in the royal procession.[31] Tensions grew following his coronation. Sigismund remained a devout Catholic and left the country abruptly, which made the Swedes sceptical of their new ruler.[32] After returning to Poland, he appointed his uncle,Duke Charles, to rule as hisregent.[33] Sigismund's ultimate intention was to reinstate Catholicism in Sweden, by force if necessary.[34] TheJesuits often acted as agents refuting Protestantism and promoting Catholicism in the country.[35]
The hostility between ChancellorJan Zamoyski and Sigismund began as soon as he arrived in Poland from Sweden to claim the crown.[36] Zamoyski, a patriotic brawler, along with other magnates were critical of the young king's liking for the Habsburg culture, certain habits and impassive cold character.[36] According to historian and writerJulian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Zamoyski was said to have exclaimed "what a mute have you brought to us" upon meeting the king in October 1587.[37][36] The Chancellor was initially supportive of Sigismund's candidacy due to his maternal lineage.[38] During the first parliament sitting, the so-calledPacification Sejm, in March 1589, Zamoyski proposed extensive reforms of the electoral system; notably, he presented the idea that only a member of a local native dynasty should be eligible to the Polish throne in the future, entailing the permanent exclusion of anyHabsburg candidates.[38]
Sigismund saw a potential ally in Austria; he sought to establish a Catholic league that would actively engage in theCounter-Reformation.[39] Zamoyski openly condemned Sigismund for associating with the Habsburgs, particularlyArchduke Ernest, and speculated that Ernest was to be the potential successor if Sigismund abdicated and returned to Sweden.[39] The anti-Austrian sentiment was only explicable as a circuitous attempt to traverse the Habsburg hegemony and influence in Central Europe, which Zamoyski perceived as a major threat.[38] However, the parliament immediately rejected the proposal and ruled in favour of Austria, thus also accepting a marriage between Sigismund andAnne of Habsburg.[38] Furthermore, the reestablishment of peaceful relations with Austria was dictated by theTreaty of Bytom and Będzin from March 1589 which was negotiated by Ippolito Aldobrandini, future PopeClement VIII.[40]
At the subsequent Sejm session, assembled in March 1590, Zamoyski persuaded the gathered deputies and representatives to exclude Archduke Maximilian from future candidacy to the throne, describing the possibility of Austrian intrigues and the looming threat of the Turkish Empire.[41] His opponents, headed by Primate Karnkowski, formed an informalconfederation immediately after the Sejm rose to protest the decrees.[41] All of the decrees of the first Sejm were rescinded by a second Sejm which sat at the end of the same year: theHetmanship was suspended, the party of Maximilian was amnestied, the Zborowskis were rehabilitated, and Zamoyski's counterparts were removed from the royal court.[42] Tensions between Sweden and Poland grew further over the ownership ofEstonia following the dissolution of theLivonian Order;[43] Zamoyski held Sigismund accountable for the dispute.[24]
Sigismund's leniency towards the Habsburgs also alienated some clerics; the Austrians wanted to preventAndrew Báthory from seizing thebishopric of Kraków and succeeded in doing so by diplomatic coaxing or coercion.[44] The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua, a staunch Habsburg supporter, eventually convinced Sigismund to nominateJerzy Radziwiłł afterPiotr Myszkowski died on 5 April 1591.[45] Capua stressed that Andrew had not been anordained priest and was not legally capable to become bishop.[46] The decision strained the once friendly relations between Poland andTransylvania.[47]
Sigismund early in his reign, by court painterMartin Kober
As outlined byOskar Halecki, the king's friends were largely recruited from the higherclergy and the Jesuits, who violated the 1573Warsaw Confederation guaranteeing religious freedoms in Poland and Lithuania.[48] As persecution loomed, political dissidents grouped and formed factions which called for adherence to the laws of the Confederation.[48] Zamoyski joined the dissidents, and, when Sigismund failed to prevent mob violence directed against non-Catholics inVilnius andKraków in 1591, he summoned several conventions that "demanded the guarantees of security".[48] Sigismund yielded to their demands, however, he forbade any future conventions which could destabilize the state. The prohibition did not have a lasting effect, and gatherings of dissidents continued in the following year.[48]
The opposition hoped to thwart the match with Archduchess Anne of Habsburg, whose state entry into Kraków at the end of May was greatly celebrated.[48] Sigismund disregarded any protest in regards to the marriage.[48] Consequently, on 1 June 1592 Zamoyski formed another confederation atJędrzejów (Latin: Andreiow) attended by the most eminent and distinguishedmagnates, among themMikołaj Zebrzydowski andStanisław Żółkiewski.[49] At Andreiow, he allegedly exposed proof concerning a plot that would place Archduke Ernest on the throne if Sigismund was to abdicate.[48] Zamoyski's claim caused an uproar.[48]
On 7 September, Sigismund summoned the "Warsaw Inquisition Sejm" (sejm inkwizycyjny)[49] to inquire into the so-called "Austrian cabals". Zamoyski's strong argument against that of the monarch was so persuasive that elderly Karnkowski sided with the Chancellor and his supporters,[48] who abstained from kissing the King's hand upon arrival as the custom required.[50] Alleged letters and private correspondence between Sigismund and Ernest with the royal signature was presented as evidence.[51][52] The King rebuked these accusations; his aides attributed the falsified signature to the courtscribe, who was subsequently imprisoned atDziałdowo (Soldau), tortured, but pleaded not guilty.[53] The opposition extended their demands and asked for the immediate removal of all foreign dignitaries from the court, includingmercenaries, which was not fully enforced.[54]
The Sejm had no definite outcome; most of the gathered nobles and diplomats dispersed as further incrimination of the sovereign proved futile and detrimental to the stability of the state.[55] There is little evidence or written works from the period concerning the terms under which the Sejm functioned or how it concluded.[56] Niemcewicz largely attributed the victory to Sigismund – the measures of the Counter-Reformation strengthened[57] and within a year many of the convention's attendees died; acquiescent nobles favourable to the king were appointed as their successors, thus making his position less vulnerable.[56] The rivalry between Sigismund and Zamoyski continued until the latter's death in 1605.[58][59]
TheUppsala Resolution of 1594 dictated the rights and securities of Protestants in Sweden; it promised to uphold the Lutheran faith in the country, forbade non-Lutherans from being appointed to office or participating in the educational system and prevented Sigismund from freely raising taxes for war.[60] However, the resolution was undermined whenever possible.[60] With military backing, Sigismund installed his own commanders in Swedish castles and made them responsible directly to him.[60] He established the office of regional governor (ståthållare) and appointed Charles' lifelong enemy,Klaus Fleming, as the overlord ofFinland.[60] The governors served notice that they would abstain from persecuting Catholicism in their administered territories.[60]Erik Brahe, a Catholic, became the governor of Sweden's capital city,Stockholm, in defiance of the 1594 charter which sparked widespread anger.[60]
On 4 August 1594, Sigismund decreed that the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) had no right to function without royal consent.[61] Despite this, Charles summoned a parliament atSöderköping in autumn of 1595,[62] at which he declared himselfregent and head of government, who would govern Sweden reciprocally with thePrivy Council during the King's absence from the realm.[61] The Finnish nobility led by Fleming rejected this resolution and so did Sigismund's emissary who ordered him, in the name of the king, to resign.[63] Fleming sympathised with Sigismund and considered Charles a rebel.[63] In response, Charles instigated a brief revolt against Fleming among the peasants underJaakko Ilkka in the province ofOstrobothnia, known today as theCudgel War.[63]
As outlined by historian Gary Dean Peterson, Fleming might have quelled the rebellion but it was Charles who took advantage of the brutality of Fleming's men and started a successful propaganda war.[63] The prospects of Polish and Catholic domination over Sweden became uncertain whenKlaus Fleming died on 13 April 1597.[63] He was succeeded byArvid Stålarm the Younger, who did not accede to Swedish demands and awaited Charles' intervention in Finland.[63] Meanwhile, the nobility dispersed;Erik Gustafsson Stenbock [sv],Arvid Gustafsson Stenbock [sv],Erik Sparre,Erik Brahe andSten Banér [sv] fled to entreat Sigismund to return and counter Charles.[63]
In 1597, a civil war erupted[64] and Duke Charles was able to assume control over a large share of the powerful castles in Sweden, and in this manner achieved control over almost all the realm.[65] However, Finland remained loyal to Sigismund and resisted. In September 1597, he sailed for the Finnish coast and seizedÅbo Castle from Fleming's widow,Ebba Stenbock, by the end of the month.[65][63] Charles's troops were not prepared nor strong enough to conquer or hold Finland in its entirety – they sailed back to Stockholm in October and Stålarm retook Åbo the same year.[63]
As noted by envoys, several high-ranking noblemen fighting for Sigismund's cause were instantaneously sent to thescaffold.[65] Further tensions and escalation of violence as well as Charles's unpredictable stance persuaded Sigismund to intervene.[65]Christian IV of Denmark agreed to cooperate but would not join the armed conflict.[66] The major seaports ofDanzig (Gdańsk),Lübeck andRostock were pressured to sever trade with Sweden.[66] Polishprivateers began to violently attack Swedish vessels in the Baltic.[66] By February 1598 Sigismund assembled an army consisting of approximately 5,000 men.[67] On 23 July 1598 the army left Danzig (Gdańsk) with eighty transports, several warships and exiled members of the Swedish parliament.[66] Eight days later they landed inKalmar, which surrendered without a fight.[66]
After the fall of Kalmar, Charles found himself with major trouble on his hands; thePolish Crown army attracted Swedish followers, and Stockholm, lacking military defence, was easily taken with the help of the nobility and officers ofGötaland.[66] The cavalry ofUppland soon joined the royalists, and new forces were mobilised in Finland and Estonia.[66] Charles' troops were greater in numbers, but mostly comprised poorly trained militias and peasants from the friendly provinces.[65]
Linköping Castle, where Sigismund met with Charles to discuss the future of the Swedish monarchy
Sigismund advanced his troops towards Stångebro inLinköping where his sisterAnna Vasa resided.[66] On 8 September Charles executed a premature attack on Stångebro which was quickly repelled; his force was surrounded in the night and massacred by the Poles.[66][67] Severed heads on lances and spikes startled Sigismund who ordered an end to the violence.[67] The supposed truce did not come into effect, and, on the morning of 25 September, the armies clashed once more in a major engagement at theBattle of Stångebro. The prevailingfog was instrumental at hiding troop movement; the Swedish rebels used the opportunity to take the bridges on the riverStångån when Sigismund's men were falsely led into a truce and retreated to their camp.[68] Their attempt to regroup and form a second defensive line proved futile and Charles emerged victorious as the Polish army was also cut off from supplies by superiorSwedish warships.[68]
The peace agreement was sealed with a dinner atLinköping Castle on 28 September.[69] Both sides agreed to lay down arms and send the troops back to their home provinces, except for the King's personal guard.[69] Charles' appointments were to be recognized and a parliament was to be called to settle any disputes.[69] The King, who was under pressure, fearing for his life without his army and having realised that he had lost the political battle, fled with his sister to Poland during the coming days.[69] At the same time as the peace treaty was being signed in Linköping, conflicts were taking place inDalarna.[70] There, a pro-Sigismund bailiff,Jacob Näf [sv], had tried to raise up theDalecarlians against Duke Charles.[70] Chaos ensued, Näf was executed, and the Dalecarlians set out on a campaign in 1598, burning and killing down to Brunnbäck ferry. InVästergötland,Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm, illegitimate son of Duke Charles, defeated the rebellion.[70] A number of Swedes who had sided with Sigismund, including his council supporters, were handed over to Charles as part of the peace settlement.[69] They were later killed in theLinköping Bloodbath of 1600.[68]
Sigismund was officially deposed from the throne of Sweden by a Riksdag held in Stockholm on 24 July 1599.[71] He was given six[69] (or twelve depending on source)[71] months to send his son, PrinceLadislaus (Władysław) Vasa, to Sweden as his successor, under the condition that the boy would be brought up in the Protestant faith.[69] In February 1600, Duke Charles summoned theEstates of the Realm toLinköping.[71] Since Sigismund had not provided a reply, the Estates elected Duke Charles as King apparent, however he would not become Charles IX until his coronation four years later.[71] During the winter and spring of 1600, Charles also occupied the Swedish part of Estonia, as the castle commanders had shown sympathies towards Sigismund.[71]
Portrait of Sigismund as a young adult by Jan Szwankowski,c. 1590
In the 1590s, the interests of theEnglish and theOttoman Turks coincided in opposing theSpanish; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast.[72] In theLow Countries of northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent byElizabeth I fought the Catholic armies of Spain'sPhilip II Habsburg, preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of theEnglish Channel. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating theMediterranean, to the benefit of the Turks.[73] During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.[74]Edward Barton, Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland.[74]
In July 1597, theQueen's Privy Council instructedHenry Billingsley,Lord Mayor of London, to arrange housing for a Polish diplomat and report back to the council.[75] On 23 July,Paweł Działyński[a] arrived inLondon and was accommodated at the house ofSir John Spencer.[75] On 25 July, Działyński was granted an audience with Elizabeth and her court at thepalace inGreenwich.[76] As described byRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person."[76] He presented his credentials, kissed the Queen's hand, then walked to the centre of the chamber and, as outlined by Cecil, "began his oration aloud inLatin, with such a gallant countenance as in my life I never beheld."[76][77]
Działyński informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish andHanseatic merchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo.[78]
Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Działyński, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to that of "a herald than an ambassador."[76][78] She reminded him that England was instrumental in halting the Turkish advances and added "I can hardly believe that if the King [Sigismund] himself were present he would have used such language."[76][78] Sigismund emerged successful in securing (non-military, non-food) trade with the Spanish Crown,[79] though the relations between the two nations became strained.[80]
The participants of the rebellion formed a war council and outlined their demands in 67 articles.[83] They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching theHenrician Articles and stipulated the expulsion ofJesuits from thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[84] The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded.[85] The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village ofGuzów.[86][87] In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led byHetmanJan Karol Chodkiewicz, was sent to pacify the rebels. Afull-scale battle ensued on 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces.[88]
The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as thePacification Sejm.[89] In return for their surrender the rebels were granted leniency.[90] Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels.[90] Despite the failure to overthrow Sigismund, the rebellion firmly established the rights and privileges of nobles in the Polish political system, confirmed the inviolability of the royal elections and religious tolerance.[81][85]
Sigismund as supreme commander of Poland–Lithuania, dressed inhose
Sigismund's major goals were achieving stability of government, combating Protestantism, and expanding Poland's territory.[91] While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as theTime of Troubles, stoked by some Polish nobles through theDimitriads, Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side.[92]
The death ofFeodor I of Russia in 1598 caused internal instability and a succession crisis upon the extinction of theRurik dynasty.[93] Further setbacks that contributed to the escalation of violence was thefamine of 1601–1603 which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population.[94] The newTsar,Boris Godunov, proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605.[95] He left one son,Feodor II, who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders.[96] Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to beDmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son ofIvan the Terrible who in fact died in 1591.[97] After the fall of Sigismund's candidates –False Dmitry I and his Polish wifeMarina Mniszech (nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) –Vasili IvanovichShuysky was crowned as Vasili IV.[96]
The death of False Dmitry and widespread chaos proved reason for Poland to prepare an invasion.[98] Prior raids between 1605 and 1609 were conducted by Polish nobles or adventurers along with hiredcossacks and foreignmercenaries.[96] Sigismund's primary intention was to destroy the Russian state and imposeCatholicism with the use of force or terror if necessary.[99]Lew Sapieha, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing toBoris Godunov an "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined.[100][101]
TheCommonwealth army under the command of HetmanStanisław Żółkiewski crossed the border and on 29 September 1609laid siege to Smolensk.[102] On 4 July 1610, at theBattle of Klushino, the outnumbered Polish force achieved a decisive victory over the combined Russian and Swedish force, mostly due to the tactical competence of thePolish winged hussars.[103] The battle was a major blow to the Russians; TsarVasili IV was subsequently ousted by theSeven Boyars and Żółkiewski entered Moscow beginning the two-year tyrannical occupation of theKremlin.[104] The Seven Boyars proclaimed Polish princeLadislaus, Sigismund's son, as the new Tsar of Russia.[105] In June 1611 Smolensk fell to thePoles;[105] the deposed Vasili Shuysky was transported in a caged wagon[106] to Warsaw, where he paidtribute to Sigismund and theSenate at theRoyal Castle on 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity atGostynin; he was most likely poisoned as his brother died soon after.[107] The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationing in Moscow.[108]
In 1611,Kuzma Minin andDmitry Pozharsky formed a new army to launch an uprising against the Polish occupiers.[109] The Poles eventuallywithdrew from Moscow in September 1612 after pillaging and burning the city.[110] When news reached Sigismund he hurried with a relief force, but was unable to commence an attack.[110] The war continued with little military action until 1618 when theTruce of Deulino was signed, which granted Poland new territories, including the city of Smolensk.[111] The agreement marked the greatest geographical expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the loss of Livonia in 1629.[112] However, Russia was able to retain independence andMichael Romanov was crowned Tsar in 1613.[110] This established theRomanov dynasty which ruled Russia until theFebruary Revolution in 1917. Sigismund's personal ambition of ruling the vast lands in the east as well as converting its populace to Catholicism ended in a fiasco. According toAlexander Gillespie, approximately five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, civil war, instigated famine and Sigismund's politics.[113]
Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of theThirty Years' War, but was denied by the Polish parliament.[114] British historianRobert Nisbet Bain wrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupyTransylvania, then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to theHabsburg monarchy and Poland.[115] TheRákóczis andGabriel Bethlen were sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose.[115]
Bain further highlighted that the chief pillars of military strength in Poland, includingStanisław Żółkiewski, warmly approved of the King's policy in this respect, but it proved to be impracticable.[115] The parliament's non-interventionist stance went so far that it refused to grant any subsidies for theSwedish Wars.[115] The indecision and political opposition weakened the alliance between the Habsburg states and the Commonwealth. Polish mercenaries did, however, join theHoly Roman Empire in combat at theBattle of Humenné against Transylvania.[116]
Apotheosis of Sigismund following his victory over theOttoman Empire,etching from 1629. The King's spear striking aTurk symbolizes the triumph of Catholicism and Christianity overIslam.
ThePrincipality of Moldavia was a Polishfief since theMiddle Ages and Sigismund aimed at securing that despite the growing threat from the south. With theOttoman influence on the rise, the Sultan aimed at expanding the Ottoman Empire westward.[117] TheOttoman–Habsburg wars, which lasted almost two centuries, were also a sign of the Sultan's desire to rule mainland Europe.[117] VoivodeGaspar Graziani, ruler of Moldavia, decided to switch sides in favour of Poland and rebelled against the Turks.[118] In turn, Sigismund sent an army to aid Graziani, a move which sparked thePolish–Ottoman War.[119]
In 1620 the Polish forces were defeated atCecora and Hetman Żółkiewski perished during the battle.[118] In 1621 a strong army of Ottomans, led byOsman II, advanced fromEdirne towards the Polish frontier.[120] Approximately 160,000[121] men besieged theKhotyn Fortress in September 1621, but were defeated at theBattle of Khotyn by a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers.[122] During the siege HetmanJan Karol Chodkiewicz died of exhaustion and illness in the camp.[123]
TheTreaty of Khotyn was signed on 9 October 1621 which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland.[124] Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiantjanissaries.[125] His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units.[125] That opposition resulted in the1622 rebellion in which Osman II was deposed andstrangled.[125]
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in a Polish costume, 1631–1632. A cousin and lifelong enemy of Sigismund, he attempted to take Ducal Prussia and Livonia.
Following a series of conflicts between Poland and Sweden in1600–1611,1617–1618, and1621–1625, all of which ended in astalemate,Gustavus Adolphus invaded in 1626 to gain control overLivonia and relinquish Sigismund's claim to the Swedish crown.[126] Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonablecasus belli and justification for war.[126] Though the Polish army achieved major victories in the previous battles against Sweden, particularly atKircholm in 1605, the very end proved to be catastrophic.[126][127]
The first skirmish took place in January 1626 nearWallhof, in present-dayLatvia, where the Swedish army of 4,900 men ambushed a Polish force of 2,000 men commanded byJan Stanisław Sapieha, son of Lew Sapieha.[127] Polish casualties were estimated at between 500 and 1,000 dead, wounded and captured. According to historians[which?], the Polish-Lithuanian commander later suffered anervous breakdown.[127]
In May 1626 the Swedes enteredPolish Ducal Prussia.[128] Escorted by a fleet, a second Swedish army disembarked in July near the town ofPiława (Pillau).[129] The landings were a complete surprise to the Commonwealth's defences, and despite a relatively small Swedish force, Gustavus Adolphus quickly captured the coastal towns and cities, almost without a fight.[129][130] Many of these were inhabited byProtestants who resisted the staunchly Catholic Sigismund and Polish domination of their lands; some towns opened their gates to the Protestant Swedish forces whom they portrayed as liberators.[131] However, fortifiedGdańsk (Danzig), which maintained its own standing army and a sizeable fleet, refused to surrender.[129] Simultaneously, Sigismund received little to no support from his vassalGeorge William of Brandenburg-Prussia, who, as aCalvinist, pledged neutrality in the conflict.[132]Jędrzej Moraczewski described George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical".[133]
The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdańsk by deploying an army to fight atGniew.[129] The fighting continued for several days until 1 October, when Sigismund ordered the withdrawal of his troops, and called on reinforcements from around the country.[134] The battle, despite a tactical victory for Sweden, was a strategic blow to Gustavus, who was subsequently unable to besiege Gdańsk.[134] AtDirschau, in the summer of 1627, Gustavus Adolphus was seriously wounded and the Prussian campaign came to a halt.[135] The wound forced the king to stay in bed until autumn, and his right arm was weakened with some fingers partially paralyzed.[135] As the major trade ports on the coast of theBaltic Sea were blocked by Swedish vessels, Sigismund sent a small squadron of ten ships underArend Dickmann to engage the Swedes at theBattle of Oliva. It was the largest naval battle fought by thePolish royal navy, which successfully defeated the enemy fleet and broke the Swedish blockade.[136]
Although Poland emerged victorious in the finalbattle at Trzciana, Sigismund's exhausted camp accepted a peace offer.[137] TheTruce of Altmark signed on 26 September 1629 (16 September O.S.) granted Sweden the control ofLivonia, though Prussia,Latgale andDyneburg remained under Polish governance.[137]
An unsuccessful attempt on the life of the King was made on 15 November 1620.[138] It occurred on Sunday morning when the monarch and his entourage was to attendmass atSt. John's Church in Warsaw.[139]
Sigismund was to arrive by crossing the alley or passage that linked theRoyal Castle with the temple. As the royal procession drew closer to the churchdoor, hidden in a nearby portal was petty noblemanMichał Piekarski, armed with awar axe.[139] When the monarch reached the final steps, Piekarski leaped out and threw himself on the King, stabbing him twice, firstly in the back and then in the cheek, and striking him in the arm.[139] However, he was not able to deliver a fatal blow due to the intervention of royal guardsmen as well as Court MarshalŁukasz Opaliński, who shielded the King.[139] Concurrently, Prince Ladislaus wounded the assassin on the head with asabre.[139] Other accounts state that no guards were present; thecortege had a casual character and the assassin was most likely overpowered by the attendees.[140]
The gateway between theWarsaw Castle and St. John's Cathedral was constructed as a precaution after the assassination attempt.
Parishioners gathered around the pale and lifeless King, who collapsed to the ground after the incident.[139] The guards and other attendants, among themMarcin Szyszkowski, were able to revive him and after a medical examination the wounds were found to be non-life-threatening.[139] Chaos erupted when false rumours spread that the King had been murdered as his clothes were stained in blood.[139] Initially, the townsfolk believed that the city was being attacked; the confusion arose when an Italian priest's crytraditore! (traitor) was misinterpreted as "Tatar".[139]
The assassin was widely regarded as a mentally unstablemelancholic, unrestrained in deeds.[139] Piekarski's most probable cause for the assassination was fame and recognition; the successful assassination ofHenry IV inParis (1610) byFrançois Ravaillac served as motivation for his actions.[141] For the appropriate moment Piekarski waited patiently ten years.[141] At his trial, he did not deny the crime he committed and heavily insulted the monarch, whilst blaming himself for the failedregicide.[142] Piekarski was executed in a similar manner as Ravaillac on 27 November 1620 in Warsaw;[143] he was publicly humiliated, tortured, and his bodytorn apart by horses.[144][142] The dismembered remains were subsequently burned and their ashes scattered by a cannon.[142]
John Albert was appointed bishop at the age of nine andcardinal at the age of twenty thanks to his father's reputation.
The reign of Sigismund marked the beginning of religious persecution during theCounter-Reformation and the downfall ofProtestantism in Poland–Lithuania.[145] His hate towardsEvangelicals coupled with the advice of Jesuit priests led to repressions and the eventual demise of thePolish Brethren decades later; their expulsion from Poland in 1658 contributed to the spread ofUnitarianism across the globe.[146] ThePolish Reformed Church, once a thriving institution and community, began to fall.[146] Akin actions were undertaken against other minorities in the country.[147] Sigismund's contempt forEastern Orthodoxy was equally strong; it was his initiative that the native Ruthenian peoples inhabiting the eastern lands of the Commonwealth be forcibly converted to Catholicism, which laid the foundation for the modernUkrainian Greek Catholic Church.[148] However, in Sweden the policies had an adverse effect; theReformation in Northern Europe continued andanti-Catholic sentiment strengthened.[149]
The discrimination further extended toJews andMuslims (Tatars), whose rights were already restricted.[150] TheWarsaw Confederation of 1573 granted religious freedoms unlike elsewhere in Europe, but the degree to which those freedoms were guaranteed often varied. In 1588, Sigismund decreed that the "Israelites" and Tatars are forbidden by law to hold public office or assume political roles.[150] Daily contact with Christians was to be limited and any attempts made at converting Christians toJudaism or Islam was punishable by death.[150] Insubordinates wereburned at the stake, or, in the case of Muslim men who married Christian women,beheaded.[150]Circumcision of Christian children by Jews was made acapital offence.[150] However, trade practices continued to thrive and Poland remained a safe haven for refugees fleeing oppression in other parts of the continent, chiefly during theThirty Years' War.[150]
Towards the end of his reign, Sigismund withdrew altogether from politics and devoted himself exclusively to family matters and his interests in performing arts. Little is known about the King's wellbeing at the time suggesting that he was in good health. However, in his last days he became bedridden due togout and joint pain, an affliction which was likely inherited from his grandfatherSigismund the Old.[154] His uncle,Sigismund II Augustus, also suffered from long-termarthritis.[155]
Shortly after the unexpected death of his second wife,Constance, Sigismund fell dangerously ill and experienced mental problems, notably he was struck with severedepression.[156] In November 1631, bishopAchacy Grochowski travelled toWarsaw and wrote "the monarch is of sound mind, his heart and stomach [abdomen] are healthy".[157] Already in advanced age for the period, onSaint Catherine's Day (25 November) he appeared "cheerful, with a ruddy face, and in good spirit hoped to leave bed".[157] Nevertheless, the gouty arthritis progressed and medics applied red-hot iron to the painful swelling with no effect.[157] The king sensed that death was near and ordered an immediate assembly of nobles, which convened on 1 April.[158] The so-called 'extraordinary parliament' (sejm ekstraordynaryjny) secured the candidacy and election of his son, Ladislaus, to the throne.[158] OnEaster Sunday he participated in final prayers, whilst being supported by his sons to prevent him from collapsing.[159]
At eight in the morning on 25 April,Kasper Doenhoff, a courtier in charge of opening curtains in the royal bedchamber and greeting the monarch, did not hear a response.[159] Unable to see at a distance he approached Sigismund whose face was paralyzed from astroke.[159] Hours later he briefly recovered his speech and murmured "there is no cure against the will [power] of death".[159] The paralysis worsened and on 27 AprilUrszula Meyerin acted as spokeswoman, speaking on behalf of the mumbling king.[159] Prince Ladislaus arrived on the same day.[159] On 28 April, Sigismund's bed was surrounded by his courtiers and the Jesuit priests, who performedexorcism-like prayers.[159] It was his wish that the court be witness to his demise, as interpreted in the words "vanitas vanitatis",Latin for 'all is vanity'.[159]
After days of suffering, Sigismund died at Warsaw'sRoyal Castle at approximately 2:45 am (02:45) on 30 April 1632.[3][160] His close aideAlbrycht S. Radziwill wrote "theautopsy on the same day in the afternoon determined that the king's internal organs were healthy. He could have lived another twenty years".[159] His embalmed body was placed in an elaboratetin coffin decorated with soldiers, battle scenes and musical motifs, a masterpiece of 17th-century tin-making.[161] The coffin was interred inside the royal crypt atWawel Cathedral inKraków on 4 February 1633.[162]
Sigismund's Column (1644) inWarsaw is a reminder of the King's decision to transfer the capital of Poland.
Sigismund's death came at a time of great divisions and constant quarrels. His rule of nearly 45 years is perceived by some as controversial – it was distinguished by considerable developments inarchitecture, the arts andculture coupled with conspiracies, religious antipathy and the endless conflict with Sweden.[163][164][165]Szymon Starowolski positioned Sigismund's legacy above that of his predecessors.[166] Others were less flattering. The decision to appoint Jesuit priests as ministers on matters which did not necessarily concern religion caused ubiquitous disapproval.[167][168] Spiteful foes convinced of the damage he inflicted on the nation wrote with contempt "this man, whose knowledge exceeded in goldsmithing but not politics, lived far too long".[169] Members of opposing camps were relieved and enthusiastic to see his progressive son, Ladislaus, take the throne.[170] Nonetheless, the nobility andmagnates from all political spheres obeyed tradition by wearing black outfits for the duration of theinterregnum as a sign of mourning.[171] The strict compliance to the practice is said to have stunned foreign dignitaries.[171] There is no doubt that Sigismund was one of Poland's most capable and recognisable sovereigns.[164]
Sigismund's reign arguably marked an end to thePolish Golden Age and the dawn of the Silver Age.[172] He presided over the transition from culturalRenaissance to theBaroque, and witnessed the first stages of a nationwide literary reform.[173] Notably, it was under his rule thatPolish began to supersedeLatin in academic thought and artistic expression.[173] Some ground-breaking achievements were made, for example, the publication ofJakub Wujek's Polish translation of theHoly Bible in 1599,[174] which remained in use until the mid-20th century.[174] The period also saw the rise of societalsatire,parody and extensive political commentaries which reflected the country's faults in hope of improvement, such as theEight sermons before the Sejm byPiotr Skarga.[175] However, these works were considered controversial and dangerous to publish, particularly after the failed1606 rebellion.[175]Józef Szujski notes that the literature became "infested withpleonasms,pasquinades and moralsermon".[175] Consequently, regional councils imposedcensorship and suppression of speech.[176] Renowned academicianJoannes Broscius (Jan Brożek) wrote a satiricallampoonGratis directed against the Jesuit priests, which was confiscated and burnt publicly in 1625.[176] Exposed printers and distributors were tied to apillory and flogged or beaten mercilessly.[176]
Franciszek Siarczyński spoke of a cultural revolution that took place at the time and shaped Poland's society for the centuries to come.[177] The simplicity and austerity of older Polish customs faded and were replaced in favour of those from Italy or Germany.[178]Fabrics and garments diversified, thus becoming more striking; Siarczyński writes "clothing, once wool, adorned our sides, nowsilk,velvet,moire, gold and silver lining. Even a commoner frowns on sheepskin coats. Ourcoaches and carriages turned ostentatious. We no more venture to our neighbours and camp without the splendour".[179] Jerzy Maternicki outlined that Sigismund was instrumental in developingmining in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[163]
The memory of Sigismund III is still vivid in Warsaw, which he expanded and made the capital of Poland in 1596.[180]Władysław IV Vasa ordered the construction of a monument dedicated to his father in the heart of the city as a reminder of the 'Sigismundian' legacy.[181] The engineers drew inspiration from the memorials ofAncient Rome, notably theColumn of Phocas.[181] The new 22-meterCorinthian column was crowned with a bronze statue of the king wearing armour, holding a cross and a sword.[181] Władysław personally unveiledSigismund's Column on 24 November 1644 as the firstsecular column in Europe's modern history.[181][182]
Sigismund and his sons left a collection of tangible memorabilia, including commemorative coins (numismatics),reliquaries, silverware,tableware, jewellery and precious personal belongings marked with royalmonograms orcrests.
Scholars frequently noted Sigismund's extreme piety, with some calling him a fanatic even during his lifetime.[168] Adherents, however, subtly described it as absolute devotion to religion andCatholic observance, which especially drew praise frompapal legates and foreign clerics who visited the court.[18] According to Giovanni Paolo Mucante and cardinalEnrico Caetani who were sent byPope Clement VIII, "Sigismund's behaviour was comparable to that of a priest. He fervently attends mass daily, then hearschoral music,sermons and orations. Hefasts, and practicessexual abstinence on Wednesdays and Fridays, two days before and afterconfession. This large kingdom would have no schismatics,Calvinists orLutherans if it depended on him".[18] Historian Paweł Fabisz writes that whenJames of England and Scotland sent a book withanti-papal connotations, Sigismund deemed the gift "vile" and threw it into the fireplace.[18]
Throughout the entire reign Sigismund maintained high etiquette and courtliness.[18] Mucante emphasized hisfrugality and calm nature.[18] Nevertheless, he hosted balls and heldmasquerades during which he would entertain guests and play theharpsichord.[184] The king was a skilled dancer and performedPolish folk dances as well as Italian dances like thesaltarello andpassamezzo.[185] Upon the marriage to his first wife,Anne of Austria, on 25 November 1592 he ordered a themed masquerade on Kraków'sMain Market Square and, to the disbelief of his subjects, danced for the public.[186] Sigismund was also known to be physically active in his youth[187] and enjoyed occasional hunting, ice skating and frequently playedfootball; he is widely credited for introducing and popularising the sport in Poland.[187] Members of the royal court disapproved of such activities which were perceived as improper and not worthy of a monarch, particularly the sports.[187]
Sigismund's personal approach to internal affairs was unpredictable; he was said to have been somewhat temperamental and impetuous at times.[188]Joachim Lelewel compared his character to that of the despoticPhilip II of Spain, but unlike Philip who overtly ordered persecution of non-Catholics, Sigismund was more discreet.[189] A determined and stubborn[189] man who sought to strengthen his authority, he was reluctant to participate in pointless conferences. As recalled by his close aideAlbrycht Radziwiłł, at one meeting the king decided to sketch an owl in his notepad rather than note important advice.[190]
Sigismund held high regard for the arts and earlyBaroque architecture; he willingly sponsored foreign masters and engineers who came to Poland at his invitation.[191] He actively took part in the designing offaçades and structural elements as well as Eucharistic objects[192] such aschalices, crucifixes,candelabra and even book covers.[193] During a visit to theLwów Bernardine Church in 1621 he reprimanded the chief planners for making the temple seem disproportionate.[194] Sigismund was a gifted painter and craftsman; only a few of his works survive,[195] among them parts ofSaint Adalbert's silver reliquary at theCathedral inGniezno.[196] He was also fascinated byalchemy and ancient methods of turning metals intogold; it is said he experimented with the alchemist and philosopherMichael Sendivogius.[197]
Anne of Habsburg was Sigismund's first consort. An introvert, she was known for her hostile attitude towards Sweden andProtestantism.
On 31 May 1592 Sigismund married his first wifeAnne of Austria (1573–1598), daughter of ArchdukeCharles II of Austria and his wifeMaria Anna of Bavaria. She was well received in Poland, despite being a Habsburg. Certain leading magnates were initially opposed to the marriage,[198] however the opinion shifted in her favour due to personal characteristics; she was known to be attentive, sharp-minded, humble, pious and kind, though of poor health.[199] The couple led a happy but introverted life. Anne was particularly hostile towards the Swedes; her attitude was shaped by an unsuccessful visit to Sweden in 1593 where she was said to have been mistreated.[200] She complained of the cold and general misery in Sweden, and fell ill there in October 1593.[201] The continuous stress arising from the unpredictable behaviour ofCharles Vasa (future King Charles IX and adversary of Sigismund) also contributed to her distaste. According to an account, she gave birth inStockholm to a baby girl named Catherine who died soon after and was secretly buried upon their return to Poland.[202] Her health rapidly deteriorated with successive pregnancies over the next four years. Anne died while pregnant with the last child, soon followed by herposthumouslydelivered newborn son, on 10 February 1598 in Warsaw.[203][204] Following her death, Sigismund was in deep mourning; he expressed sorrow in private letters to his mother-in-lawMaria Anna of Bavaria,[203] and isolated himself from subjects.[205] Anne and Sigismund had five[206] known children during their marriage:
Catherine (Polish:Katarzyna; May 1594 – June 1594)
Ladislaus (Polish:Władysław; 9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648), reigned 1632–1648 as Władysław IV
Catherine (Polish:Katarzyna; 27 September 1596 – June 1597)
Christopher (Polish:Krzysztof; b. and d. 10 February 1598)
Constance of Habsburg, Anne's sister and Sigismund's second consort. A devout Catholic, she supported Sigismund in political endeavours.
Sigismund was expected to marryAnna of Tyrol in 1603, howeverEmperor Rudolf II did not give his consent.[207] Instead, on 11 December 1605 he weddedConstance of Austria (1588–1631), Anne's younger sister.[208] The match was condemned by nobles and clerics who previously opposed Anne and the Habsburg alliance; the match was savagely described as "incestuous".[209][210] The death ofJan Zamoyski, leader of the opposition, in June 1605 allowed for the marriage to take place without incidents.[211] Some threatened to abandon the royal court, notablyPiotr Skarga.[209] The marriage further fuelled the anger of Sigismund's most vocal adversaries,Nicholas Zebrzydowski.[212] The wedding ceremony and Constance's entrance into Kraków was so ostentatious it was recorded in the form of a largegouache roll painting known asrolka sztokholmska, now housed in Sweden.[213] Like her sister, Constance was well-educated and religious; she attended mass two to four times a day.[214] She was also a good mother, who particularly cared for her stepson, Ladislaus, even in his twenties.[215] On the other hand, Constance approved of her husband's struggle for absolute power; she maintained considerable influence over Sigismund and the senators. To the general public she appeared cold, strait-laced, intolerant and evenantisemitic; in 1626, she forbade the Jews to settle in the town ofŻywiec which she privately owned and administered.[216] Under her patronage, Austro-German culture as well as Spanish fashion flourished at the court.[217] Constance died on 10 July 1631 from aheat stroke she suffered after attending mass on theFeast of Corpus Christi weeks earlier.[218] They had seven[219] children:
John Casimir (Polish:Jan Kazimierz; 25 December 1607 – 14 January 1608)
John Casimir (Polish:Jan Kazimierz; 22 March 1609 – 16 December 1672), reigned 1648–1668 as John II Casimir
John Albert (Polish:Jan Albert/Olbracht; 25 May 1612 – 22 December 1634)
The nature of the relationship between Sigismund and one of his trusted courtiers,Urszula Meyerin, has been continually questioned by Polish historians. Born inMunich as Ursula Gienger,[220] she came to Poland with the cortège of future queen Anne in 1592.[221] The king was said to have been infatuated with Urszula, who was known to be attractive and pious.[222] Upon her arrival, she became involved in the affairs of state and was appointedchamberlain (ochmistrzyni in Polish) at the Queen's court.[221] To emphasize her political role and importance, she adopted the Old German equivalent to the title of chamberlain, "Meyerin", as hersobriquet and official name.[221] She devotedly assisted in raising the children and, with time, acted as their tutor.[221]
Meyerin's position asgrey eminence[221] and influence on the royal couple made her immensely unpopular among the nobility. Consequently, she was compared to the SpanishDuke of Lerma, who ruled in the king's stead, and contemptuously described as "the king's mistress", "ravenous gold-digger", "minister in a skirt" or "Jesuit's bigotry".[220][223] Sigismund's secretaryJan Szczęsny Herburt in his memoirs called her "an obscenefavourite".[224] However, it is unknown whether the relations between the two were physical.[225][226]
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1Also prince of Norway 2Also prince of Poland and Lithuania 3Lost his title due to an unequal marriage 4Not Swedish prince by birth, but created prince of Sweden
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