More than one hundred million years ago during theNevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started touplift less than five million years ago,[8] and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of fivelife zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacularfault blockescarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.
The Sierra Nevada has played an important role in the history of California and the United States. TheCalifornia gold rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to its inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912.[9]: 81
The literal translation is "snowy mountains", fromsierra "a range of mountains", 1610s, from Spanishsierra "jagged mountain range", lit. "saw", from Latinserra "a saw"; and from the Spanish adjectivenevado "snowy".[13][14]
While many mountain ranges are unanimously referred to in the plural (Smokies,Rockies,Cascades, etc.), some locals who live in "the Sierra" are not hesitant to admonish those who refer to the area as "the Sierras".[15] However, there are historical and literary references that use the plural, such as the 1871 collection ofJoaquin Miller poems,Songs of the Sierras.[15][16]Ansel Adams, in response to a publication of his photographs under the titleParmelian Prints of the High Sierras, commented, "To add ans is a linguistic, Californian, and mountaineering sin."[17]
The Sierra Nevada lies primarily inCentral andEastern California, with theCarson Range, a small but historically important spur, extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 500 feet (150 m) in theCentral Valley[18] to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) atop the highest peaks of its crest 50 to 75 miles (80 to 121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep SierraEscarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due toorographic lift.
Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade–Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the largerPacific Mountain Systemphysiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under theCenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range."[22]
Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range and the contiguous United States
The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height ofFreel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park isMount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) withMount Humphreys nearBishop, California. Finally, nearLone Pine,Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in thecontiguous United States.
South of Mount Whitney, the elevation of the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) nearLake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m).[23]
There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada:
Lake Tahoe is a large, clear freshwater lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 6,225 ft (1,897 m) and an area of 191 sq mi (490 km2).[24] Lake Tahoe lies between the main Sierra and theCarson Range, a spur of the Sierra.[24]
Groves ofgiant sequoiasSequoiadendron giganteum occur along a narrow band of altitude on the western side of the Sierra Nevada. Giant sequoias are the largest trees in the world.[25]
TheUnited States Forest Service and theBureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada.[4] Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.
The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area nearMount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangeredSierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.[27]
In theCretaceous, asubduction zone formed at the edge of the continent.[32] This means that anoceanic plate started to dive beneath theNorth American Plate. Magma, formed through the subduction of the ancientFarallon Plate, rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called theSierra Nevada batholith. These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma.[33] The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra.[30] At this time, the Sierra Nevada formed the western ramp of a high plateau to the east, theNevadaplano.[34] During this period, rivers cut deep canyons into the range, generating topographic relief similar to the modern Sierra Nevada. This period of incision was halted approximately 30 million years ago by vast outpourings ofpyroclastic flows from Nevada which filled the northern Sierran valleys with volcanic deposits.[35] These pyroclastic flows, which continued for about 10 million years, were followed by andesiticlahars which nearly completely buried the northern Sierran landscape such that only the tallest peaks emerged above a volcanic plain.[36] This second period of volcanism appears to have been triggered by crustal extension associated with extension of theBasin and Range Province.[37] As this andesitic volcanism began waning about five million years ago, the rivers were able to begin eroding away the 100s of meters of volcanic deposits and resume the incision that had been halted by the first period of volcanism.
Some studies have argued that this recent incision is a sign of recent tectonic uplift.[38][39] Other geologists claim that the elevations of many of the modern rivers flowing down the range are only 100–300 meters (300–1,000 ft) lower than their ancient counterparts from 30–40 million years ago and the overall elevation and bedrock topography of the northern Sierra Nevada has changed little since at least 30–40 million years ago.[40][41][42]
About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, andice ages started.Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant ofmetamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.
Extension of the Basin and Range continues today, leading to downdropping of crustal blocks just east of the Sierra Nevada during large earthquakes, such as theLone Pine earthquake of 1872.[43]
Red Slate Mountain (elevation 13,156 ft or 4,010 m) is still covered with snow in June
The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by theMediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 m) elevation, due toorographic lift.[33]: 69 Above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), precipitation diminishes on the western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in arain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year.[44] While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms are common, particularly during theNorth American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in a short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42–90 °F (6–32 °C). Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example,Tuolumne Meadows, at 8,600 feet (2,600 m) elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 °F (4 °C) with daily lows about 10 °F (−12 °C).[45] The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation.[18] The highest elevations of the Sierra have analpine climate.
The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source ofelectric power generation in California.[46] Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts arain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the centralGreat Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada being the driest state in the United States.[47]
Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.
The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.[48]
The Sierra Nevada is home to theMono winds, strong, dry downslope winds that primarily affect the western slopes, especially in the central region, and are most common from late fall to spring. With gusts reaching over 80 miles per hour, these winds can cause widespread disruption, uprooting trees, damaging infrastructure, and making mountain passes hazardous for drivers.[49]
Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such asdowndrafts andmicrobursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices areReno, Nevada;Fresno, California; andLas Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to theBermuda Triangle. Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000,[50] including millionaire and record-breaking flyerSteve Fossett. Hypotheses that the crashes are related in some way to theUnited States Air Force'sArea 51, or to the activities ofextra-terrestrial aliens, have no evidence to support them.[51][52]
The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number ofbiotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species.[33] Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. Therain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: eachlife zone is higher in the east.[33] A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:
Thewestern foothill zone, 1,000–2,500 ft (300–760 m),[33]: 92 with grassland, oak-grass savanna and chaparral-oak woodland.[18]Gray pine (also known as Foothill pine) is intermixed with the oak woodland.[33]: 95
Archaeological excavations placedMartis people ofPaleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustainingindigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were theNorthern Paiute tribes on the east side, with theMono tribe andSierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and theKawaiisu andTübatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with itsobsidianarrowheads. The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains.[54]Washo andMaidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement.[55][56]
American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there wereSpanish missions,pueblos (towns),presidios (forts), andranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada.[57] The first Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapperJedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, atEbbetts Pass.[57]
In 1833, a subgroup of theBonneville Expedition led byJoseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route toCalifornia. Eventually the party discovered a route along theHumboldt River across present-dayNevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to seeYosemite Valley.[58] TheWalker Party probably visited either theTuolumne orMerced Groves ofgiant sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees,[57] but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia.[59]
In the winter of 1844, Lt.John C. Frémont, accompanied byKit Carson, was the first European American to seeLake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m).[61]
The California Gold Rush began atSutter's Mill, nearColoma, in the western foothills of the Sierra.[62] On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working forSacramento pioneerJohn Sutter, found shiny metal in thetailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on theAmerican River.[63] Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 bySan Francisco newspaper publisher and merchantSamuel Brannan. Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"[63]
On August 19, 1848, theNew York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, PresidentJames Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address toCongress.[64]: 80 Soon, waves ofimmigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded theGold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.[65] Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims.
Because thegold in theCalifornia gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simplypanned for gold in California's rivers and streams.[66]: 198–200 However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into asluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.[67]: 90
By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations.Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields.[64]: 89 In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 milliontroy ounces (340 metric tons) of gold (worth approximately US$16 billion in 2020 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking".[68] A consequence of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel,silt,heavy metals, and other pollutants were washed into streams and rivers.[67]: 32–36 As of 1999[update], many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.[67]: 116–121
It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.[64]: 25 The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush droveNative Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.[67]
The exploration team for the California Geological Survey, 1864
The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored.[9][69] The state legislature authorized theCalifornia Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state).Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, includingWilliam H. Brewer,Charles F. Hoffmann andClarence King, explored the backcountry of what would becomeYosemite National Park in 1863.[9] In 1864, they explored the area aroundKings Canyon. In 1869,John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range,[70] and in 1871, King was the first to climbMount Langley, mistakenly believing he had summitedMount Whitney, the highest peak in the range.[71] In 1873, Mount Whitney was climbed for the first time by 3 men from Lone Pine, California, on a fishing trip.[9] From 1892 to 1897Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.[9]
Logging in the Sierra Nevada has significantly impacted the landscape. The logging industry in the Sierra Nevada started in the early 1800s, when settlers relied on hand tools and ox-teams.[72]: 103, 127 Before the California Gold Rush, the industry was relatively small, and most of the lumber used in the state was imported. However, as the demand for lumber to support the mining industry increased, logging became a major industry in the region.
Initially, most of the lumber produced in California was used in mining. TheComstock Lode was a major center for logging, with operations supplying lumber for the construction of mine structures, such as tunnels, shafts, and buildings, as well as fuel for the mines.Dan DeQuille observed in 1876, "the Comstock Lode may truthfully be said to be the tomb of the forests of the Sierra. Millions upon millions of feet of lumber are annually buried in the mines, nevermore to be resurrected."[73]
In the late 1800s, thelogging industry moved westward due to the depletion ofwhite pine forests in the upper Midwest.[74]: 9–14 This shift was encouraged by the positive portrayal of the Sierra Nevada as a promising timber region. In 1859,Horace Greely marveled, "I never saw anything so much like good timber in the course of any seventy-five miles' travel as I saw in crossing the Sierra Nevada."[75]
The logging industry experienced significant growth in the late 1800s due to several factors.The Timber and Stone Act of 1878 allowed individuals to claim ownership of old-growth timber tracts, which were later consolidated underjoint-stock companies, such as those founded by Midwestern lumber magnates.[77]: 142–144 These companies had the financial resources to transport timber from remote locations and build sawmills near the tracks of theSouthern Pacific railroad which connected theSan Joaquin Valley to the rest of the state in the 1870s. This facilitated the nationwide distribution of lumber. In addition, technological advancements, such as theshay locomotive and thev-shaped log flume, made it easier to transport lumber across mountainous terrain.[72]
The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range.Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley andMariposa Grove were ceded toCalifornia in 1866 and turned into a state park.[58] John Muir perceivedovergrazing bysheep and logging ofgiant sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906.[58] In the same year,Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time.
Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and afterWorld War II, towns such asSouth Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000.[80] The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by theTahoe Regional Planning Agency.[81]
As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. TheJohn Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley toMount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938.[82]Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of theKings River.
In the 1920s, automobile clubs and nearby towns started to lobby for trans-Sierra highways overPiute Pass[83] (which would have closed the gap inSR 168) and other locations. However, by end of the 1920s, the Forest Service and the Sierra Club decided that roadless wilderness in the Sierra was valuable, and fought the proposal. The Piute Pass proposal faded out by the early 1930s, with the Forest Service proposing a route overMinaret Summit in 1933.[83] The Minaret Summit route was lobbied against by California's GovernorRonald Reagan in 1972. The expansion of theJohn Muir andAnsel Adams Wildernesses in the 1980s sealed off the Minaret Summit route.[83]
A trans-Sierra route betweenPorterville andLone Pine was proposed by local businessmen in 1923.[84] Eventually, a circuitous route across the Sierra was built acrossSherman Pass by 1976.[85]
By 1964, theWilderness Act protected portions of the Sierra as primitive areas where humans are simply temporary visitors. Gradually, 20wilderness areas were established to protect scenicbackcountry of the Sierra. These wilderness areas include theJohn Muir Wilderness (protecting the eastern slope of the Sierra and the area between Yosemite and Kings Canyon Parks), and wilderness within each of the National Parks.
The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands.[86] Grazing occurs on private lands as well as on National Forest lands, which include Wilderness areas. Overgrazing can alter hydrologic processes and vegetation composition, remove vegetation that serves as food and habitat for native species, and contribute to sedimentation and pollution in waterways.[87] A recent increase in large wildfires, like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the Eldorado National Forest, has prompted concerns.[86] A 2015 study indicated that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable tohuman-induced climate change.[88] A study looking back over 8,000 years found that warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and more stand-replacing fires and concluded that as climate is such a powerful influence on wildfires, trying to recreate presettlement forest structure may be difficult in a warmer future.[89]
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