Sierra Leone,[a] officially theRepublic of Sierra Leone,[b] is a country on the west coast ofWest Africa. It is bordered to the southeast byLiberia and byGuinea to the north. Sierra Leone's land area is 73,252 km2 (28,283 sq mi).[12] It has atropical climate and environments ranging fromsavannas torainforests. As of the 2023 census, Sierra Leone has a population of 8,460,512.[3]Freetown is its capital and largest city.
Sierra Leone is a culturally diverse country, home to approximately18 ethnic groups, with theTemne andMende peoples being predominant. TheCreole people, descendants of freed African-American, Afro-Caribbean slaves and liberated Africans, constitute about 1.2% of the population. English is the official language, whileKrio is thelingua franca, spoken by 97% of the population. The country is rich with natural resources, notably diamonds, gold,bauxite and aluminium. As of the most recent survey in 2019, 59.2% of the population is affected bymultidimensional poverty and an additional 21.3% vulnerable to it.[18] Sierra Leone maintains membership in several international organisations, including the United Nations, African Union,Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and theCommonwealth of Nations, among others.
Sierra Leone derives its name from theLion Mountains near its capital, Freetown.[19] Originally namedSerra Leoa (Portuguese for 'lioness mountains') by Portuguese explorerPedro de Sintra in 1462, the modern name is based on theVenetian spelling, which was introduced byVenetian explorerAlvise Cadamosto and subsequently adopted by other Europeanmapmakers.[20]
Sierra Leone's history is marked by continuous human habitation for at least 2,500 years,[21] influenced by migrations from across Africa.[22] Iron technology had been adopted by the 9th century and agriculture established by 1000 AD along the coast.[23] Climate shifts over centuries altered the ecological zones, influencing migration and conquest dynamics.[24]
The region's densetropical rainforest and swamps, coupled with the presence of thetsetse fly which carried a disease fatal to horses and thezebu cattle used by theMandé people, provided natural defenses against invasions by theMandinka Empire and other African empires,[24][25] and limited influence by theMali Empire. The introduction ofIslam bySusu traders, merchants and migrants in the 18th century further enriched the culture, eventually establishing a strong foothold in the north. The conquest bySamory Touré in the northeast solidified Islam among theYalunka,Kuranko andLimba people.[26]
The 15th century marked the beginning of European interaction with Sierra Leone, highlighted by Portuguese explorerPedro de Sintra mapping the region in 1462 and naming it after the lioness mountains.[27][28] This naming has been subject to historical reinterpretation, suggesting earlier European knowledge of the region. Following Sintra, European traders established fortified posts, engaging primarily in theslave trade, which shaped the socio-economic landscape significantly.[29]
Traders from European countries such as theDutch Republic,England andFrance, started to establish trading stations. These stations quickly began to primarily deal in slaves, who were brought to the coast by indigenous traders from interior areas. The Europeans made payments, calledCole, for rent, tribute, and trading rights, to the king of an area. Local Afro-European merchants often acted as middlemen, the Europeans advancing them goods to trade to indigenous merchants, most often for slaves and ivory.[30][31]
Portuguese traders were particularly drawn to the local craftsmanship inivory, leading to a notable trade in ivory artifacts such as horns,Sapi Saltceller, and spoons. The Sapi people belonged to a cluster of people who spokeWest Atlantic languages, living in the region of modern day Sierra Leone. There had already been a carving culture established in the area prior to Portuguese contact and many travelers to Sierra Leone initially impressed with their carving skills took local ivory horns back to Europe.[32]
An Ivory Hunting Horn, Sapi people, Modern day Bullom or Temne People, Sierra Leone, late 15th century
In the late 18th century, some African Americans who had fought for theBritish Crown during theAmerican Revolutionary War were resettled in Sierra Leone, forming a community namedBlack Loyalists. This resettlement scheme was partly motivated by social issues in London, with the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme offering a new beginning for theBlack Poor. Many had been slaves who had escaped to join the British, lured by promises of freedom (emancipation). Official documentation known as theBook of Negroes lists thousands of freed slaves whom the British evacuated from the nascent United States and resettled in colonies elsewhere inBritish North America.Pro-slavery advocates accused the Black Poor of being responsible for a large proportion of crime in 18th-century London. While the broader community included some women, the Black Poor seems to have exclusively consisted of men, some of whom developed relationships with local women and often married them. On the voyage betweenPlymouth, England and Sierra Leone, 29 European girlfriends and wives accompanied theBlack Poor settlers.[34] Many in London thought moving them to Sierra Leone would lift them out of poverty.[35] The Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme was proposed by entomologistHenry Smeathman and drew interest from humanitarians likeGranville Sharp, who saw it as a means of showing the pro-slavery lobby that black people could contribute towards the running of the new colony. Government officials soon became involved in the scheme as well, although their interest was spurred by the possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere.[36]William Pitt the Younger, prime minister and leader of the Tory party, had an active interest in the Scheme because he saw it as a means to repatriate the Black Poor to Africa.[37]
In January 1787, theAtlantic and theBelisarius set sail for Sierra Leone, but bad weather forced them to divert to Plymouth, during which time about 50 passengers died. Another 24 were discharged, and 23 ran away. Eventually, 411 passengers sailed to Sierra Leone in April 1787. On the voyage between Plymouth and Sierra Leone, 96 passengers died.[37][38][39][40] In 1787 the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the "Province of Freedom". About 400 black and 60 white colonists reached Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787. After they establishedGranville Town, most of the first group of colonists died, owing to disease and warfare with the indigenous African peoples (Temne), who resisted their encroachment. When the ships left them in September, they had been reduced to "276 persons, namely 212 black men, 30 black women, 5 white men and 29 white women".[37]
The settlers that remained forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliated, attacking the settlement, which was reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, and six white women. Black settlers were captured by unscrupulous traders and sold as slaves, and the remaining colonists were forced to arm themselves for their own protection.[37] The 64 remaining colonists established a second Granville Town.[41][42]
Following the American Revolution, some Black Loyalists fromNova Scotia, Canada, were relocated to Sierra Leone, founding Freetown and contributing significantly to theKrio people andKrio language that would come to define the region.[citation needed]
Following theAmerican Revolution, more than 3,000 Black Loyalists had also been settled inNova Scotia, but faced harsh winters and racial discrimination.Thomas Peters pressed British authorities for relief and more aid; together with British abolitionistJohn Clarkson, theSierra Leone Company was established to relocate Black Loyalists who wanted to take their chances in West Africa. In 1792 nearly 1,200 persons from Nova Scotia crossed the Atlantic to build the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement ofFreetown on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called theNova Scotian Settlers, theNova Scotians, or theSettlers. Clarkson initially banned the survivors of Granville Town from joining the new settlement, blaming them for the demise of Granville Town.[37] The Settlers built Freetown in the styles they knew from their lives in theAmerican South; they also continued American fashion and American manners. In addition, many continued to practiseMethodism.
In the 1790s, the Settlers, including adult women, voted for the first time in elections.[43] In 1792, in a move that foreshadowed the women's suffrage movements in Britain, the heads of all households, of which a third were women, were given the right to vote.[44] Black settlers in Sierra Leone enjoyed much more autonomy than their white equivalent in European countries. Black migrants elected different levels of political representatives, 'tithingmen', who represented each dozen settlers and 'hundreders' who represented larger amounts. This sort of representation was not available in Nova Scotia.[45] The initial process of society-building in Freetown was a harsh struggle. The Crown did not supply enough basic supplies and provisions and the Settlers were continually threatened by illegal slave trading and the risk of re-enslavement.[46]
The Sierra Leone Company, controlled by London investors, refused to allow the settlers to takefreehold of the land. In 1799 some of the settlers revolted. The Crown subdued the revolt by bringing in forces of more than 500 Jamaican Maroons, whom they transported fromCudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) via Nova Scotia in 1800. Led by ColonelMontague James, the Maroons helped the colonial forces to put down the revolt, and in the process theJamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone secured the best houses and farms.[47]
On 1 January 1808,Thomas Ludlam, the Governor of the Sierra Leone Company and a leading abolitionist, surrendered the company's charter. This ended its 16 years of running the Colony. The British Crown reorganised the Sierra Leone Company as theAfrican Institution; it was directed to improve the local economy. Its members represented both British who hoped to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company, which held the (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade.[48]
At about the same time (following the Slave Trade Act 1807 which abolished the slave trade), Royal Navy crews delivered thousands of formerly enslaved Africans to Freetown, after liberating them from illegal slave ships. TheseLiberated Africans orrecaptives were sold for $20 a head as apprentices to the white settlers, Nova Scotian Settlers, and the Jamaican Maroons. Many Liberated Africans were treated poorly and even abused because some of the original settlers considered them their property. Cut off from their various homelands and traditions, the Liberated Africans were forced to assimilate to the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons.[49] The Liberated Africans eventually modified their customs to adopt those of the Nova Scotians, Maroons and Europeans, yet kept some of their ethnic traditions.[50] As the Liberated Africans became successful traders[49] and spread Christianity throughout West Africa, they intermarried with the Nova Scotians and Maroons.[50]: 3–4, 223–255
The colonial era saw Sierra Leone evolving under British rule. Sierra Leone developed as an educational center in West Africa, with the establishment ofFourah Bay College in 1827, attracting English-speaking Africans from across the region.
The settlement of Sierra Leone in the 1800s was unique in that the population was composed of displaced Africans, brought to the colony after the Britishabolition of the slave trade in 1807. Upon arrival in Sierra Leone, eachrecaptive was given a registration number, and information on their physical qualities was entered into the Register of Liberated Africans. Documentation was often subjective, resulting in inaccurate entries, making them difficult to track.[55]
The first missionaries,Peter Hartwig andMelchior Rennerfrom theChurch Missionary Society (CMS), arrived in Sierra Leone in 1804.[56] The CMS missionaries were to introduce Western ideals, including Western education and healthcare. One of their most significant contributions was the establishment of schools for West African children. European missionaries established these schools with an agenda to convert the native people to their religion, but the educational efforts did not relate to local needs.[57]
In the early 19th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British colonial governor of the region, who also administered theGold Coast (nowGhana) and theGambia settlements. Sierra Leone developed as the educational centre ofBritish West Africa.[58] The British establishedFourah Bay College in 1827, which became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in westSub-Saharan Africa.Samuel Ajayi Crowther was the first student to be enrolled.[59] Fourah Bay College soon drewCreoles/Krio people and other Africans seeking higher education in British West Africa. These included Nigerians, Ghanaians, Ivorians, and others, especially in the fields oftheology and education. Freetown was known as the "Athens of Africa" due to the number of excellent schools there and in surrounding areas.[60]
In Freetown, the British interacted mostly with the Krio people, who did most of the trading with the indigenous peoples of the interior. Educated Krio people held many positions in the colonial government, giving them status and good pay. After theBerlin Conference of 1884–85, the British decided to establish more dominion over the inland areas, to satisfy what the European powers called "effective occupation". In 1896 it annexed these areas, declaring them the Sierra Leone Protectorate.[61] With this change, the British began to expand their administration in the region, recruiting British citizens to posts and pushing Krio people out of governmental positions and even Freetown's desirable residential areas.[61]
Madam Yoko persuaded the British to give her control of the Kpaa Mende chiefdom. She used diplomacy to communicate with local chiefs who did not trust her friendship with the British. Because Yoko supported the British, some sub-chiefs rebelled, causing Yoko to take refuge in the police barracks. She ruled as a paramount chief in the new British Protectorate until 1906.
The British annexation of the Protectorate interfered with indigenous chiefs' sovereignty. They designated chiefs as units of local government, rather than dealing with them individually, as had been the previous practice. They did not maintain relationships even with longstanding allies, such asBai Bureh, who was later unfairly portrayed as a prime instigator of theHut Tax War.[62]
BritishWest African Campaign troops in Freetown, 1914–1916. Published caption: "British expeditionary force preparing to embark at Freetown to attack theGerman Cameroons, the main object of the attack being the port ofDuala. Auxiliary native troops were freely used in African warfare."
In 1898, ColonelFrederic Cardew, military governor of the Protectorate, imposed a new tax on dwellings and demanded that chiefs use their people to maintain roads. The taxes were often higher than the value of the dwellings, and 24 chiefs signed a petition to Cardew stating how destructive this was; their people could not afford to take time off from their subsistence agriculture. They resisted payment of taxes, and tension over the new colonial requirements and the administration's suspicion of the chiefs led to the Hut Tax War. The British fired first; the northern front of mainly Temne people was led by Bai Bureh. The southern front, consisting mostly ofMende people, entered the conflict somewhat later, for other reasons.
Temne leader Bai Bureh seen here in 1898 after his surrender, sitting relaxed in his traditional dress with a handkerchief in his hands, while a Sierra LeoneanWest African Frontier Force soldier stands guard next to him
For several months, Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British forces but both sides suffered hundreds of fatalities.[63] Bureh surrendered on 11 November 1898 to end the destruction of his people's territory and dwellings. The British government recommended leniency, but Cardew insisted on sending the chief and two allies into exile in the Gold Coast; his government hanged 96 of the chief's warriors. Bureh was allowed to return in 1905, when he resumed his chieftaincy of Kasseh.[62] The defeat of the Temne and Mende in the Hut Tax War ended mass resistance to the Protectorate and colonial government, but intermittent rioting and labour unrest continued throughout the colonial period. Riots in 1955 and 1956 involved tens of thousands of Sierra Leoneans in the Protectorate.[64]
African Naval ratings march past the Governor of Sierra Leone,Sir Hubert Stevenson.
Domesticslavery, which continued to be practised by local African elites, was abolished in 1928.[65] In 1935, a monopoly on mineral mining was granted to theSierra Leone Selection Trust, run byDe Beers. The monopoly was scheduled to last 98 years. Mining of diamonds in the east and other minerals expanded, drawing labourers there from other parts of the country.
In 1924, the UK government divided the administration of Sierra Leone into Colony and Protectorate, with different political systems for each. The Colony was Freetown and its coastal area; the Protectorate was defined as thehinterland areas dominated by local chiefs. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most proposals came from leaders of the Protectorate, whose population far outnumbered the Colony's. The Krios, led byIsaac Wallace-Johnson, opposed the proposals, as they would have reduced the Krios' political power in the Colony.
In 1951,Lamina Sankoh collaborated with educated Protectorate leaders to form theSierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) as the party of the Protectorate. The SLPP leadership, led by Sir Milton Margai, negotiated with the British and the educated Krio-dominated colony based in Freetown to achieve independence.[66] Under Margai, educated Protectorate elites were able to join forces with theparamount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements to achieve independence from the UK.[67]
In November 1951, Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and provided a framework fordecolonisation.[68] In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers and Margai was electedChief Minister of Sierra Leone.[68] The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone had a parliamentary system within theCommonwealth of Nations.[68] In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The SLPP won the most seats in Parliament and Margai was reelected as Chief Minister by a landslide.
On 27 April 1961, Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first prime minister. Sierra Leone had its own parliament, its own prime minister, and the ability to make its own laws, but like countries such as Canada and Australia, Sierra Leone remained a "Dominion" and Queen Elizabeth was Queen of the independentDominion of Sierra Leone.[69][70] The Dominion of Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main oppositionAll People's Congress (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed underhouse arrest in Freetown.[71]
In May 1962, Sierra Leone held itsfirst general election as an independent state. The SLPP won a plurality of seats in parliament, and Margai was reelected as prime minister. Margai was popular among Sierra Leoneans during his time in power. He was not corrupt, nor did he make lavish displays of his power or status.[72] He based the government on therule of law and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics, sharing power among political parties and interest groups, especially the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government.[citation needed]
Upon Margai's unexpected death in 1964, his youngerhalf-brother, Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned his succession to the SLPP leadership position. But Karefa-Smart lacked broad support within the SLPP in his attempt to oust Albert as both the leader of the SLPP and prime minister. Soon after Albert Margai was sworn in as prime minister, he fired several senior government officials who had served in his brother's government, viewing them as a threat to his administration, including Karefa-Smart.
Sir Albert resorted to increasinglyauthoritarian actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress while attempting to establish aone-party state.[73][74] He opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been his brother's allies. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert a threat to the ruling houses across the country. Margai appointed many non-Creoles to the country'scivil service in Freetown, in an overall diversification of the civil service, which had been dominated by Creoles. As a result, he became unpopular among Creoles, many of whom had supported Sir Milton. Margai sought to make the army homogeneouslyMende,[75] his own ethnic group, and was accused of favouring members of the Mende for prominent positions.
In 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Margai's policies. In response, he declared astate of emergency across the country. He was accused of corruption and of a policy ofaffirmative action in favour of the Mende ethnic group.[76] He also endeavoured to change Sierra Leone from a democracy to aone-party state.[77]
1967 General Election and military coups (1967–1968)
The APC, with its leaderSiaka Stevens, narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested1967 general election. Stevens was sworn in as prime minister on 21 March 1967.
Within hours of taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodlessmilitary coup led byBrigadier GeneralDavid Lansana, the commander of theSierra Leone Armed Forces. He was a close ally of Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Lansana placed Stevens underhouse arrest in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House. Stevens was later freed and fled the country, going into exile in neighbouring Guinea. On 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier GeneralAndrew Juxon-Smith staged a counter-coup against Lansana. They seized control of the government, arrested Lansana, and suspended the constitution. The group set up theNational Reformation Council (NRC), with Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country.[78]
On 18 April 1968 a group of low-ranking soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by Brigadier GeneralJohn Amadu Bangura,overthrew the NRCjunta. The ACRM arrested many senior NRC members. They reinstated the constitution and returned power to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of prime minister.[79]
Stevens had Bangura arrested in 1970 and charged with conspiracy and treason. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, even though his actions had led to Stevens's return to power.[80] Lansana andHinga Norman, the main army officers involved in the first coup (1967), were unceremoniously dismissed from the armed forces and made to serve time in prison. Norman was a guard toGovernor-generalSir Henry Lightfoot-Boston.[17] Lansana was tried, found guilty of treason, and sentenced to death in 1975.[17]
One-party state and dawn of the 'Republic' (1968–1991)
AnAPC political rally in the northern town ofKabala outside the home of supporters of the rivalSLPP in 1968
Stevens assumed power as prime minister again in 1968, following a series of coups.[17] He had campaigned on a platform of socialist principles, but abandoned them and employed an authoritarian government.[81] During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by his predecessors Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies were said to have left the country economically deprived.[17]
Stevens reorganised the country's oil refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory.[82] He began efforts that later improved transportation and movement between the provinces and Freetown. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown. Under the pressure of several coup attempts, real or perceived, Stevens's rule grew increasingly authoritarian, and his relationship with some of his supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.
After the return to civilian rule,by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens's policies and his handling of the Sierra Leone Military, but none could confront him. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as prime minister, was widely considered the only person who could control Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged withconspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was convicted; on 29 March 1970, he was executed by hanging in Freetown.
After Bangura's execution, a group of soldiers loyal to him mutinied in Freetown and other parts of the country in opposition to Stevens's government. Dozens of soldiers were arrested and convicted by acourt martial in Freetown for their participation in the mutiny. Among the soldiers arrested was a little-known armycorporal,Foday Sankoh, a strong Bangura supporter, who later formed theRevolutionary United Front (RUF). Sankoh was convicted and jailed for seven years at Pademba Road Prison in Freetown.
In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became president. In the 1972 by-elections, the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the1973 general election; as a result, the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.[83]
An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In mid-1974, Guinean soldiers, as requested by Stevens, were stationed in the country to help maintain his hold on power, as Stevens was a close ally of then-Guinean presidentAhmed Sékou Touré. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition to a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials were executed after being convicted of attempting a coup to topple Stevens's government.
In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone's politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens's personal Special Security Division (SSD), a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and maintain his hold on power.[84] SSD officers were loyal to Stevens and were deployed across the country to clamp down on any rebellion or protest against his government.A general election was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.[85] This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country, which was also put down by the army and the SSD force.
Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but he kept the country stable and from collapsing into civil war. He created government institutions still in use. Stevens reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.
Stevens retired from politics in November 1985. The APC named a new presidential candidate,Major GeneralJoseph Saidu Momoh, head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. Momoh had been loyal to Stevens, who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was a member of the minorityLimba ethnic group. As the sole candidate, Momoh was elected president without opposition and sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown. President Momoh appointed his former military colleague and key ally, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie, to succeed him as head of the Sierra Leone Military. Momoh named James Bambay Kamara head of theSierra Leone Police. Bambay Kamara was also a strong Momoh loyalist and supporter. Momoh broke from Stevens by integrating the SSD into the Sierra Leone Police as a specialparamilitary force. Under Stevens, the SSD had been a personal force used to maintain his hold on power, independent from the Sierra Leone Military and Sierra Leone Police Force. The Sierra Leone Police under Bambay Kamara's leadership was accused of physical violence, arrest, and intimidation against critics of Momoh's government.
Momoh's strong links with the army and verbal attacks on corruption earned him initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the APC cabinet under Momoh and the return of many from Stevens's government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.
The next few years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, Momoh announced a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-PresidentFrancis Minah, who was convicted of plotting the coup and executed by hanging in 1989.
Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) and the NPRC regime (1992–1996)
The brutal civil war significantly impacted Sierra Leone, with internal and external factors contributing to widespread violence. International interventions, notably by the United Kingdom and the United Nations, were crucial in restoring peace.
A school inKoindu destroyed during theCivil War; in total 1,270 primary schools were destroyed in the War.[86]
In October 1990, owing to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reforms, Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to assess the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations, a constitution reestablishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. It was widely suspected that Momoh was not serious about political reform, as APC rule was increasingly marked by abuses of power.
On 29 April 1992, a group of young soldiers in the Sierra Leone Army, led by seven army officers—Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Captain Valentine Strasser,Lieutenant Solomon "SAJ" Musa, CaptainKomba Mondeh, LieutenantTom Nyuma, Captain Julius Maada Bio and Captain Komba Kambo[87]—staged amilitary coup that sent Momoh into exile in Guinea, and the soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC), with 25-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country.[88] The NPRC junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limitedfreedom of speech andfreedom of the press, and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.
SAJ Musa, a childhood friend of Strasser, became the deputy chairman and deputy leader of the NPRC government. Strasser became the world's youngest head of state when he seized power just three days after his 25th birthday. The NPRC established the National Supreme Council of State as the military highest command and final authority in all matters and was exclusively made up of the highest-ranking NPRC soldiers, including Strasser and the others who toppled Momoh.[88]
One of the top-ranking soldiers in the NPRC junta, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, a trusted ally of Strasser, was assassinated, allegedly by Major S.I.M. Turay, a key loyalist of Momoh. A heavily armed military manhunt was carried out across the country to find Sandy's killer. Turay, the main suspect, fled to Guinea. Dozens of soldiers loyal to Momoh were arrested, including Colonel Kahota M. Dumbuya and Major Yayah Turay.
The NPRC maintained relations with ECOWAS and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in the Liberian war. On 28 December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC government aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, ColonelKahota M.S. Dumbuya, and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara, was foiled. Several Junior army officers led by Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the execution of 17 soldiers by firing squad. Some of those executed include Colonel Kahota Dumbuya, Major Yayah Kanu, and Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara, were also executed.[89]
On 5 July 1994 SAJ Musa, who was popular among the general population, particularly in Freetown, was arrested and sent into exile after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser, an accusation SAJ Musa denied. Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Bio and instantly promoted him tobrigadier.
The NPRC's efforts proved nearly as ineffective as the Momoh administration in repelling the RUF rebels. More and more of the country fell into the RUF fighters' hands, and by 1994 they had gained control of much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were getting close to Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenary fighters fromSouth Africa-basedprivate military contractorExecutive Outcomes to strengthen the response to RUF rebels. Within a month, they drove the RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone's borders and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond-producing areas of Sierra Leone.
With Strasser's two most senior NPRC allies and commanders Lieutenant Sahr Sandy and LieutenantSolomon Musa no longer around to defend him, Strasser's leadership within the NPRC's Supreme Council of State became fragile. On 16 January 1996, after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a palace coup staged by his fellow NPRC soldiers led by Brigadier Bio at the Defence Headquarters in Freetown.[90] Strasser was immediately flown into exile in amilitary helicopter toConakry,Guinea. In his first public broadcast to the nation after the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio said that returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and ending the civil war were his motivations for the coup.[91]
Kabbah's tenure: government, "dawn of a new republic", the AFRC and end of the Civil War (1996–2007)
Following the 1995 National Consultative Conference at the Bintumani Hotel in Freetown, dubbed "Bintumani I", a Strasser-led initiative, the Bio administration initiated another National Consultative Conference at the same hotel, dubbed "Bintumani II". It involved both national and international stakeholders, in an effort to find a viable solution to the issues plaguing the country.[92] "Peace before Elections vs Elections before Peace" became a key debate topic and this quickly became a point of national discussion. The discussions eventually concluded with key stakeholders, including Bio's administration and the UN, agreeing that while efforts in finding a peaceful solution to ending the war should continue, a general election should be held as soon as possible.[92] Bio handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of the SLPP, after the conclusion of elections in early 1996 which Kabbah won. After taking over, President Kabbah immediately openeddialogue with the RUF and invited their leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiations.[93]
On 25 May 1997, 17 soldiers in the Sierra Leone army led by Corporal Tamba Gborie, loyal to the detained MajorJohnny Paul Koroma, launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established theArmed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). Gborie quickly went to the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Services headquarters in New England, Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State.
Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputyDefence MinisterSamuel Hinga Norman, remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part of Sierra Leone from the soldiers.
After nine months in office, the junta was overthrown by the Nigerian-ledECOMOG forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in February 1998. On 19 October 1998, 24 soldiers in the Sierra Leone army—including Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh, Colonel Samuel Francis Koroma, Major Kula Samba and Colonel Abdul Karim Sesay—were executed by firing squad after they were convicted in acourt martial in Freetown, some for orchestrating the 1997 coup that overthrew President Kabbah and others for failure to reverse the mutiny.[94]
In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to sendpeacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and theUN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly allNigerian forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone,Sankoh's forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were takenhostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launchedOperation Khukri to end the siege.
The situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed inOperation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. But the British exceeded their original mandate and took full military action to defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of theBritish Army, together with administrators and politicians, remained after withdrawal to help train the armed forces, improve the country's infrastructure, and administer financial and material aid.Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone.[95]
Between 1991 and 2001, about50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees inGuinea andLiberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May 2002, Kabbah was reelected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backedwar crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.
The elections in 2007 and 2012 marked a return tomulti-party democracy, withErnest Bai Koroma's election signaling a period of stability and recovery from the civil war.[96]
TheEbola epidemic in 2014 posed a significant health crisis, leading to a national state of emergency.[97]
In March 2018, ageneral election in Sierra Leone resulted inJulius Maada Bio becoming president, and the subsequent inauguration of parliament amidst a police intervention.
A map of Sierra LeoneSierra Leone map of Köppen climate classification
Sierra Leone is on the southwest coast ofWest Africa, mostly between latitudes7° and10°N (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes10° and14°W. It is bordered byGuinea to the north and east,Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest.[99]
Sierra Leone has an area of 73,252 km2 (28,283 sq mi), divided into a land area of 73,132 km2 (28,236 sq mi) and water of 120 km2 (46 sq mi).[100] The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone theplateau is interspersed with high mountains, whereMount Bintumani reaches 1,948 m (6,391 ft), the highest point in the country. The upper part of thedrainage basin of theMoa River is in the south of this region.
In the west, Sierra Leone has 400 km (249 mi) of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lyingGuinean mangroves swamp.Freetown sits on a mountainous coastalpeninsula next to the Sierra Leone Harbour.
The climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: therainy season from May to November, and adry season from December to May, which includesharmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off theSahara Desert and the nighttime temperature can be as low as 16 °C (60.8 °F). The average temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and varies from around 26 to 36 °C (78.8 to 96.8 °F) during the year.[101][102]
Next to the president is thevice-president, who is the second highest-ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice-president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the President.
The Parliament of Sierra Leone isunicameral, with 149 seats. Each of the country's 16 districts is represented in parliament. 135 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 14 seats are filled byparamount chiefs from the country'sadministrative districts.[106] The Sierra Leone parliament is led by the Speaker of Parliament, who is directly elected by sitting members of parliament. The current speaker of the Sierra Leone parliament isAbass Bundu, who was elected on 21 January 2014.
The current members of the Parliament of Sierra Leone were elected in the2023 Sierra Leonean general election. The APC currently has 54 of the 135 elected parliamentary seats, and theSierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) has 81 of the seats. Members of parliament must be a citizen of Sierra Leone over age 21, a registered elector, and proficient in the English language.[103] Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties: the SLPP and the APC. Other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant support.[107]
The Sierra LeoneSupreme Court in the capitalFreetown, the highest and most powerful court in the country
The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in thejudiciary, headed by theChief Justice of Sierra Leone and comprising the Supreme Court of Sierra Leone, which is the highest court in the country, meaning that its rulings, therefore, cannot be appealed against. Other courts are the High Court of Justice, the Court of Appeal, the magistrate courts, and traditional courts in rural villages led by a paramount chiefs and village elders that handle family and community dispute in civil cases. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary has jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current actingchief justice of Sierra Leone is Desmond Babatunde Edwards. The Sierra Leone Judiciary is constitutionally independent from outside influences, but in practice, the president of Sierra Leone has large unofficial power and influences over the Judiciary, including the influence to remove a sitting judge.
The Sierra Leonean Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Russia,[108] Libya, Iran, and Cuba.
Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States, and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other formerBritish colonies through its membership of theCommonwealth of Nations.[109] The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.
The Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, based on elements of the former BritishRoyal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces consist of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,[113] the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.[114]
When Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force was created from the Sierra Leone Battalion of the West African Frontier Force.[116] The military seized control in 1968, bringing theNational Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).[116][117] The RSLMF remained a single-service organisation until 1979 when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. In 1995 Defence Headquarters was established, and the Sierra Leone Air Wing was formed. The RSLMF was renamed as the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).
Law enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of theSierra Leone Police (SLP), which is accountable to the Minister of Internal Affairs (appointed by the president). Sierra Leone Police was established by theBritish colony in 1894; it is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by theInspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force, who is appointed by thepresident of Sierra Leone.
Each ofSierra Leone's 14 districts is headed by a district police commissioner who is the professional head of their district. These commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. The current Inspector General of Police isWilliam Fayia Sellu, who was appointed to the position by PresidentJulius Maada Bio on 27 July 2022.[115][118]
According to a 2015 US Department of State report, "the most significant human rights problems included a lack of universal access to justice; widespread official corruption in all branches of government; and trafficking in persons, including forced child labor."[119] Excessivepolice brutality is also a frequent problem.[120]
While discrimination on the basis of sex, colour, religion and political opinion is prohibited by the constitution, there is neither constitutional nor legal prohibition of discrimination based that is based on sexual orientation, HIV-positive status or trans identity.[119] Indeed, malesame-sex sexual activity is illegal under Section 61 of theOffences against the Person Act 1861, and imprisonment for life is possible.[121][122]
The provincial districts are divided into 186 chiefdoms, which have traditionally been led byparamount chiefs, recognised by the British administration in 1896 at the time of organising the Protectorate of Sierra Leone. The Paramount Chiefs are influential, particularly invillages and small rural towns.[127] Each chiefdom has ruling families that were recognised at that time; the Tribal Authority, made up of local notables, elects the paramount chief from the ruling families.[127] Typically, chiefs have the power to "raise taxes, control the judicial system, and allocate land, the most important resource in rural areas".[128]
Within the context of local governance, the districts are governed aslocalities. Each has a directly elected local district council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level.[129][130] In total, there are 19 local councils: 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural, and six municipalities also have elected local councils. The six municipalities include Freetown, which functions as the local government for the Western Area Urban District, andBo,Bonthe,Kenema,Koidu, andMakeni.[129][131][132]
While the district councils are under the oversight of their respective provincial administrations, the municipalities are directly overseen by the Ministry of Local Government & Community Development and thus administratively independent of district and provincial administrations.
By the 1990s, economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade, much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country's civil war. Since the end of hostilities in 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone recover.[144]
Much of the recovery depends on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause of the civil war. A key indicator of success is the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.
There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slackening and donors have urged its advancement. As of the most recent survey in 2019, 59.2% of the population continues to be affected bymultidimensional poverty and an additional 21.3% vulnerable to it.[18]
The currency is theleone. Thecentral bank is theBank of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone operates a floatingexchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchangebureaux and most hotels. Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, but they are used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linkedautomated teller machines that acceptVisa cards in Freetown.
Agriculture is the largest employer with 80 per cent of the population working in the sector.[146]Rice is the most important staple crop in Sierra Leone, with 85 per cent of farmers cultivating it during the rainy season[147] and an annual consumption of 76 kg (167.5 lbs) per person.[148]
Rich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top ten diamond producing countries. Mineral exports remain the maincurrency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.
Sierra Leone is known for itsblood diamonds that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during thecivil war to buy the weapons that fuelled its atrocities.[149] In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials.
Annual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates a range between US$250 million–$300 million. Some of that issmuggled and used formoney laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war, with efforts to improve their management having some success. In 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place that led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund (DACDF), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stakes in the legal diamond trade.
Sierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits ofrutile, atitanium ore.
There are several systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports. There are 11,300 kilometres (7,000 miles) of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 904 km (562 mi)[100] are paved (about 8%). Sierra Leone's highways are linked toConakry, Guinea, andMonrovia, Liberia.
Sierra Leone has Africa's largestnatural harbour, allowing international shipping through theQueen Elizabeth II Quay in theCline Town area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km (497 mi) of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km (373 mi) are navigable year-round. Major port cities areBonthe,Freetown,Sherbro Island andPepel.
There are tenregional airports in Sierra Leone and oneinternational airport.Freetown International Airport, in the coastal town ofLungi, is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen or Kissy in Freetown by passenger ferry. Abridge is planned to cross the estuary with completion expected by the end of 2027. The airport has apaved runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 feet). The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways from 914 to 1,523 metres (2,999 to 4,997 feet) long; the other two have shorter runways.
Sierra Leone appears on the EU list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline registered in Sierra Leone may operate services of any kind within the European Union, due to substandard safety standards.[150]
As of December 2024, the country's onlyinternational airport had regularly scheduled direct flights to Istanbul, Brussels and many major cities in Africa.
As of 2016, about 12% of the population of Sierra Leone had access to electricity. Of that 12%, 10% was in Freetown, and the remaining 90% of the country used 2% of the nation's electricity.[151] The majority of the population relies on biomass fuels, with firewood and coal used most prevalently.[152] The burning of these sources has been reported to have adverse health effects on women and children.[152] The use of coal and firewood has also posed environmental concerns as they are both in conflict with the push for more sustainable sources of energy.[153] As a result, the commercialisation of firewood and coal has been a point of contention with aid donors and government agencies.[153] There have been strong pushes for both solar and hydropower to become the dominant sources of energy. Sierra Leone's tropical climate, heavy annual rainfall, and abundance of rivers give it the potential to pursue more solar and hydropower alternatives.[154]
In conjunction with the UK'sDepartment for International Development (DFID), Sierra Leone has set a goal to provide solar power to all its citizens by 2025.[155] It aims provide solar power to at least 50,000 homes in 2016, 250,000 homes by 2017, and 1,000,000 people by 2020.[155] This initiative falls under theEnergy Africa access campaign.[151] Before this compact agreement, Sierra Leone's private sector for solar energy was weak, as it provided energy to less than 5% of the target population.[151] Part of the reason for this was the import duties, taxes, and lack of quality control.[151] To ensure that the Energy Africa goal is met, Sierra Leone has agreed to remove its import duties and Value Added Tax (VAT) on certified solar products.[155] It is estimated that there will be a 30% to 40% cost reduction on solar products with the lack of duties and taxes.[151]
As of 2012, Sierra Leone has three main hydroelectric plants: the Guma plant, which was decommissioned in 1982; the Dodo Plant, in the Eastern Province; and theBumbuna plant.[154] There is also potential for several new hydroelectric plants to open on the Sewa River, Pampana River, Seli River, Moa River, and Little Scarcies.[154] The Bumbuna dam is the largest and was estimated to produce about 50 megawatts of electricity.[156] It has been projected that the Bumbuna dam could reduce the amount of spending on foreign fuel and save the country at least $2 million a month.[157]
Sierra Leone's total population, from 1961 to 2013
In 2019 Sierra Leone had a population of 7,813,215[158] and a growth rate of 2.216% a year.[100] The population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7% under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62% of people living outside the cities.[100] As a result of migration to cities, the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9% a year.[100][159]
Population density varies greatly within Sierra Leone. TheWestern Area Urban District, including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km. The largest district geographically,Koinadugu, has a much lower density of 21.4 persons per square km.[159]
English is theofficial language,[160] spoken at schools, government administration and in the media.Krio (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, and the language of theSierra Leone Creole people) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 96% of the country's population,[100][161] it unites all the differentethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.[162] Krio is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leoneans at home and abroad,[163] and has also heavily influencedSierra Leonean English.[164]
According to theWorld Refugee Survey 2008, published by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned toLiberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone, nearly all were Liberian.[167]
The populations quoted above for the five largest cities are from the 2004 census. The figure for Freetown is for the Western Urban Area (Greater Freetown). Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim thatMagburaka should be included in the above list, but there is considerable difference among sources.[169][170]
Sierra Leone is officially asecular state.Islam andChristianity are its two main religions. The constitution provides forfreedom of religion and the government generally protects it. The government is constitutionally forbidden to establish astate religion, though Muslim and Christian prayers are usually held at the beginning of major political occasions.
Surveys of the religious makeup of Sierra Leone vary widely, thoughMuslims are the majority. Based on 2015 estimates, 77% of the population is Muslim, 22% is Christian, and 1% practiseAfrican traditional religion. According to 2020 estimates by thePew Research Center[171] 78.5% of Sierra Leone's population is Muslim (mostlySunni), 20.4% is Christian (mostlyProtestant), and 1.1% has a traditional African religion or other beliefs. The Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone estimated that 77% of Sierra Leone's population is Muslim, 21% is Christian, and 2% follows traditional African religions.[172] Most of Sierra Leone's ethnic groups are Muslim majority, including the country's two largest ethnic groups: the Mende and Temne.
Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant countries in the world.[173][174][175] Most of the major Muslim and Christian holidays are officiallynational holidays in the country, and religious conflict is rare.[176]
The overwhelming majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to the Sunni tradition. Most of the Mosques and Islamic schools across Sierra Leone are based on Sunni Islam.Ahmadiyya Muslims make up about 10% of the country's Muslim population; the southern city ofBo is home to a large Ahmadiyya Muslim population. There are five hundred Ahmadiyya Mosques across Sierra Leone.[180]Shia Islam does not have a strong presence in Sierra Leone, and there are virtually noShia Muslims in the country. Most Sierra Leonean Muslims of the Sunni and Ahmadiyya sect generally pray together in the samemosque.[181][182] The vast majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to theMaliki school of Sunni Islam. Many Ahmadiyya Muslims in Sierra Leone also follow the Maliki Jurisprudence.
The Sierra Leone Islamic Supreme Council is the highest Islamic religious organisation in Sierra Leone and is made up of the country's Imams, Islamic scholars, and other Islamic clerics across the country. Sheikh Muhammad Taha Jalloh is the president of the Sierra Leone Supreme Islamic Council.[183] The United Council of Imams is an influential Islamic religious body in Sierra Leone that is made up of allimams of mosques throughout Sierra Leone. The president of the United Council of Imam is SheikhAlhaji Muhammad Habib Sheriff.[184] The two largest mosques in Sierra Leone are theFreetown Central Mosque and theGhadafi Central Mosque, both located in the capitalFreetown.
The vast majority of Temne are Muslims at over 85%, with a significant Christian minority at about 10%. The Mende are also Muslim majority at about 70%, though with a large Christian minority at about 30%. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende. The vast majority of the Mende support the Sierra Leone People's Party; while the majority of the Temne support the All People's Congress.[204]
The Mende, who are believed to be descendants of theMane,[citation needed] originally occupied the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century.
The third-largest ethnic group is theLimba at about 8.4% of the population. It is believed that they have lived in Sierra Leone since before the European encounter. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly inBombali,Kambia andKoinadugu District. The Limba are about 60% Christian and 40% Muslim. Since independence, the Limba have traditionally been influential in Sierra Leone's politics, along with the Mende.
One of the biggest minority ethnic groups are theFula at around 3.8% of the population. Descendants of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Fula migrant settlers from theFouta Djalon region of Guinea, they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are virtually all Muslims at over 99%.[citation needed]
The other ethnic groups are theMandingo (also known asMandinka). They are descendants of traders from Guinea who migrated to Sierra Leone during the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. The Mandinka are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country. They predominate in the large towns, most notablyKarina, in Bombali District in the north;Kabala andFalaba in Koinadugu District in the north; andYengema,Kono District in the east of the country. Like the Fula, the Mandinka are virtually all Muslims at over 99%.
Next in proportion are theKono, who live primarily in Kono District in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are descendants of migrants from Guinea; today their workers are known primarily as diamond miners. The majority of the Kono ethnic group are Christians, though with an influential Muslim minority.
The small but significant Creole orKrio people (descendants of freed African American,West Indian and Liberated African slaves who settled in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) make up about 3% of the population. They primarily occupy the capital city ofFreetown and its surroundingWestern Area. The Creoles or Krio have traditionally dominated Sierra Leone's judiciary and Freetown's elected city council. One of the first ethnic groups to become educated according to Western traditions, they have traditionally been appointed to positions in the civil service, beginning during the colonial years. They continue to be influential in the civil service. The Creoles or Krios are virtually all Christians at about 99%.[citation needed]
TheOku people are the descendants of liberated MuslimYorubas from SouthwestNigeria, who were resettled in Sierra Leone asLiberated Africans or came assettlers in the mid-19th century. The Oku people primarily reside in the communities of Fourah Bay, Fula Town, and Aberdeen in Freetown. The Oku are virtually all Muslims at about 99%.
Other minority ethnic groups are theKuranko, who are related to the Mandingo and are largely Muslims. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settled in the north, particularly inKoinadugu District. The Kuranko are primarily farmers; leaders among them have traditionally held several senior positions in the military. The Kuranko are largely Muslim majority.
TheLoko in the north are native people of Sierra Leone, believed to have lived in Sierra Leone since the time of European encounter. Like the neighbouring Temne, the Loko are Muslim majority. TheSusu and their relatedYalunka are traders; both groups are primarily found in the far north in Kambia and Koinadugu District close to the border with Guinea. Both the Susu and Yalunka people are descendants of the Mande people. They are virtually all Muslims.
TheKissi live further inland in South-Eastern Sierra Leone. They predominate in the large town ofKoindu and its surrounding areas in Kailahun District. The vast majority of Kissi are Christians. The much smallerVai andKru peoples are primarily found inKailahun and Pujehun Districts near the border with Liberia. The Kru predominate in the Kroubay neighbourhood in the capital of Freetown. The Vai are largely Muslim majority at about 90%, while the Kru are virtually all Christians at over 99%.
On the coast inBonthe District in the south are theSherbro. Native to Sierra Leone, they have occupiedSherbro Island since it was founded. The Sherbro are primarilyfisherman andfarmers, and they are predominantly found in Bonthe District. The Sherbro are virtually all Christians, and their paramount chiefs had a history of intermarriage with British colonists and traders.
A small number of Sierra Leoneans are of partial or fullLebanese ancestry, descendants of traders who first came to the territory in the 19th century. They are locally known as Sierra Leonean-Lebanese. The Sierra Leonean-Lebanese community are primarily traders and they mostly live in middle-class households in the urban areas, primarily in Freetown,Bo,Kenema,Koidu Town andMakeni. Other non-Africans include 500 Indians and 2,000 Europeans.[205]
Although women account for about 50 percent of the population in Sierra Leone, only 28 percent are household heads.[206] As in the rest of the countries, education is a key factor in succeeding in aspects such as a well-paid job and covering the needs of a house. Rural areas are the most common to lack access to education having only male-headed four percent ahead of females with basic education and 1.2 percent more at the post-graduate level.[206]
In Sierra Leone, normally, men are automatically positioned as household heads; and their status does not change if their marital status changes over time.[206] However, a female household does change depending on their marital status. A woman can be the head of the house only if she remains single for the rest of her life. But if a woman gets married, she will not be entitled to be the head of the house anymore.[206] Females can take over the household head if they become widowed or divorced.[206]
In the labour field, it is expected that the household will financially provide for the needs of the family. However, females face gender discrimination making them the target of lower incomes and financial struggles.[206] In numbers, females present a lower percentage (6.3) versus males (15.2) when it comes to being paid employees.[206] Women face discrimination when it comes to obtaining financial, social, and cultural help to start a business.[75]
Education in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years atprimary level (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education,[207] but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible.[86] Two thirds of the adult population are illiterate.[208]
TheSierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools, and in 2001, 67% of all school-age children were out of school.[86] The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrolment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.[209] Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free andcompulsory in government-sponsoredpublic schools.
The country has three universities:Fourah Bay College, founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa),[210] University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), andNjala University, which was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.[211] Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.
TheCIA estimated that the average life expectancy in Sierra Leone was 57.39 years.[212]
The prevalence ofHIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6%, higher than the world average of 1% but lower than the average of 6.1% acrossSub-Saharan Africa.[213]
Medical care is not readily accessible, with doctors and hospitals out of reach for many villagers. While free health care may be provided in some villages, the medical staff is poorly paid and sometimes charge for their services, taking advantage of the fact that the villagers are not aware of their right to free medical care.[214]
According to 2017 estimates, Sierra Leone has the third highestmaternal mortality rate in the world.[221] For every 100 liveborn children, one mother dies due to complications of giving birth.[221]
One of the consequences women in Sierra Leone face after a prolonged and obstructed labour that would have required a c-section isobstetric fistula. This condition often drives women into poverty and isolation.[224]
The AWC- Aberdeen Women's Centre inFreetown, the second busiest hospital in Sierra Leone, delivers up to 3000 babies each year.[225] The centre provides a variety of maternal and child health services and is supported by not-for-profit organisations.[226][227]
Mental healthcare in Sierra Leone is almost non-existent. Many sufferers try to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers.[228] During theCivil War (1991–2002), many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatised, with an estimated 400,000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse.[229]
The water supply in Sierra Leone is characterised by limited access to safe drinking water. Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organisations, access has not much improved since the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas.[230] It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, will alleviatewater scarcity.[231]
According to a national survey carried out in 2006, 84% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population had access to animproved water source. Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance.[230][232]
With a new decentralisation policy, embodied in the Local Government Act of 2004, responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown, the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of the water supply.
A situation map of theEbola outbreak as of 8 August 2014
In 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak,Sheik Umar Khan.[233] Aside from the human cost, the outbreak was severely eroding the economy. By September 2014, with the closure of borders, the cancellation of airline flights, the evacuation of foreign workers and a collapse of cross-border trade, the national deficit of Sierra Leone and other affected countries was widening to the point where the IMF was considering expanding its financial support.[234]
As of 2019, 30% of women and 14% of men were in a polygamous unions in Sierra Leone. "The percentage of women with one or more co-wives has decreased gradually over time, from 37% in 2008 and 35% in 2013 to 30% in 2019."[235]
Rice is thestaple food of Sierra Leone and is consumed at virtually every meal. The rice is prepared in numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favourite toppings, includingpotato leaves,cassava leaves,crain crain,okra soup,fried fish andgroundnut stew.[236]
Along the streets of towns and cities across Sierra Leone, one can find foods consisting of fruit, vegetables and snacks such as freshmangoes, oranges, pineapple, friedplantains,ginger beer, fried potato, fried cassava with pepper sauce; bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp.
Poyo is a popular Sierra Leonean drink. It is a sweet, lightly fermentedpalm wine.[237]
Media in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the firstprinting press in Africa at the start of the 19th century. A strong free journalistic tradition developed with the creation of several newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa. At the end of the 19th century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication medium in the country.
TheSierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the colonial government in 1934 making it the earliest English-language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978. In April 2010, the SLBS merged with theUnited Nations peacekeeping radio station in Sierra Leone to form theSierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation,[238][239] the government-owned current national broadcaster in Sierra Leone.
The Sierra Leone constitution guaranteesfreedom of speech, andfreedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice.[240][241][242][243][244][245] Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.[246][247]
Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The CriminalLibel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.[247]
In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in.[247] As of 2013[update] Sierra Leone is ranked 61st (up two slots from 63rd in 2012) out of 179 countries on Reporters Without Borders'Press Freedom Index.[248]
Print media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown and other major cities, partially due to the low levels ofliteracy in the country.[249] In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.[250] The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low owing to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.[249]
Isata Mahoi shown editing radio programmes in Talking Drum studioFreetown; she is also an actress in the Sierra Leone radio soap operaAtunda Ayenda
Radio is the most popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily.[249] These levels do vary between areas of the country, with theWestern Area having the highest levels andKailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage –Capital Radio Sierra Leone being the largest of the commercial stations.
The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) ran one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. The UN mission was restructured in 2008 and it was decided that theUN Radio would be merged with SLBS to form the new Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). This merger eventually happened in 2011 after the necessary legislation was enacted. SLBC transmits radio onFM and has two television services, one of which is uplinked by satellite for international consumption. FM relays of theBBC World Service (in Freetown, Bo, Kenema and Makeni),Radio France Internationale (Freetown only) andVoice of America (Freetown only) are also broadcast.
Outside the capital Freetown and other major cities, television is not watched by a great many people, although Bo, Kenema and Makeni are served by their own relays of the main SLBC service. There are three free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBC and the other two are private stations in Freetown, Star TV which is run by the owner of theStandard-Times newspaper and AYV – Africa Young Voices. Several religious funded TV stations operate intermittently. In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine-year-old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. GTV subsequently went out of business, leaving DStv as the only provider of subscription satellite television in the country. ITV and SATCON are currently operational.
Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of 3G/4G cellular phone services across the country. There are several maininternet service providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.
Association football is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. Children, youth and adult are frequently seen playingstreet football across Sierra Leone. There are organised youth and adult football tournaments across the country, and there are various primary and secondary schools with football teams across Sierra Leone.
The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as theLeone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for theFIFA World Cup but participated in the1994 and1996 African Cup of Nations. When the national football team, the Leone Stars, have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team.
TheSierra Leone National Premier League is the top professional football league in Sierra Leone and is controlled by theSierra Leone Football Association. Fourteen clubs from across the country compete in the Sierra Leone Premier League. The two biggest and most successful football clubs areEast End Lions andMighty Blackpool. East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool have an intense rivalry and when they play each other the national stadium in Freetown is often sold out and supporters of both clubs often clash with each other before and after the game.[citation needed]
Many Sierra Leonean youth, children and adults follow the major football leagues in Europe, particularly the EnglishPremier League, ItalianSerie A, SpanishLa Liga, GermanBundesliga and FrenchLigue 1.
TheSierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of theInternational Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up toMozambique, and just missed promotion to Division Two.
In 2009, the Sierra Leone Under-19 team finished second in the African Under-19 Championship in Zambia, thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament.[255] However, the team was unable to obtain visas to play in the tournament.[256]
Sierra Leone's Freetown is a favourite destination for tourists. Although the sector was seriously affected during the Civil War, there has been a steady improvement in recent years.[257] There is a vast expanse of beaches stretching along the Freetown Peninsula. The Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, which is located within the peninsula's vast rainforest reserve, just a few kilometres from the centre of Freetown, has a collection of rare and endangered chimpanzees. Other popular destinations for tourists include the Freetown Cotton Tree, located in Central Freetown, a significant national monument and integral to the founding of the city;Bunce Island, which is a boat ride from the city, is home to the ruins of the slave fortress that was being used during the Transatlantic slave trade; the Sierra Leone Museum, which has a collection of both precolonial as well as colonial artifacts and other items of historical significance; the National Railway Museum; or take a journey around the city's coastline with the popular Sea Coach Express.[citation needed]
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^Sivapragasam, Michael, "Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?" Unpublished master's dissertation (London: Open University, 2013), pp. 40–43.
^Peter Fryer inStaying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London:Pluto Press, 1984; p. 195) quotes a contemporary commentator who called them "indigent, unemployed, despised and forlorn", saying that "it was necessary they should be sent somewhere, and be no longer suffered to invest [sic] the streets of London" (C. B. Wadström,An Essay on Colonization, 1794–5, II, 220).
^abcdeSiva, Michael (Winter 2021). "Why Did the Black Poor of London Not Support the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme?".History Matters Journal.1 (2):25–47.
^abDixon-Fyle, Mac; Cole, Gibril Raschid (2006). "Introduction".New Perspectives on the Sierra Leone Krio. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 2–3.ISBN978-0-8204-7937-8.A substantial part of this ex-slave population was Yoruba, but members of ethnic groups from other regions of the Atlantic (Igbo, Efik, Fante, etc) were also very much in evidence in this coterie of Liberated Africans. Individuals from ethnic communities indigenous to Sierra Leone were significantly represented among the Liberated Africans [...] Many a Temne, Limba, Mende, and Loko resident of Freetown, influenced by local European officials and missionaries, would come in time to shed their indigenous names, and cultural values, to take on a Creole identity which gave them a better chance of success in the rarefied Victorian ambience [sic] of a progressively westernized Freetown society.
^Paracka, Daniel (2003).The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-94795-4.
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^Killson, Martin (1966),Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 60; also pp. 106, 107, 110, 111, 186–188 on other riots and strikes.
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^abMunro, Paul; van der Horst, Greg; Healy, Stephen (June 2017). "Energy justice for all? Rethinking Sustainable Development Goal 7 through struggles over traditional energy practices in Sierra Leone".Energy Policy.105:635–641.Bibcode:2017EnPol.105..635M.doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.01.038.ISSN0301-4215.
^Thompson, V. A. D. (2013).The Transformation of Freetown Christianity, 1960–2000. Doctoral Dissertation, University of London.
^Saidu Bangura, 2015A Roadmap to Sierra Leone English: A Sociohistorical and Ecological Perspective, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, PhD thesis, p. 124, 222, 232-242.
^Anne Jung (December 2012)."Wealth, but no health". D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu. Archived fromthe original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved17 June 2014.
^Sipsma, Heather L., et al. "Female Genital Cutting: Current Practices and Beliefs in Western Africa." Bulletin of the World Health Organization 90.2 (2012): 120–127F. Print.
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