In antiquity, Sidon held prominence as a significantPhoenician city. Nestled on a mainland promontory and boasting two harbors.[6] Throughout ancient history, Sidon had many conquerors:Assyrians,Babylonians,Egyptians,Persians,Greeks, and finallyRomans. Under Persian rule, it eclipsedTyre to become the paramount city in Phoenicia.[6] In the New Testament era,Herod the Great visited Sidon. BothJesus andSaint Paul are said to have visited it, too (seeBiblical Sidon below). The city was eventually conquered by theArabs and then by theOttoman Turks.[7][8]
Sidon has been inhabited since very early inprehistory. The archaeological site of Sidon II shows alithicassemblage dating to theAcheulean, whilst finds at Sidon III include aHeavy Neolithic assemblage suggested to date just prior to the invention ofpottery.[9]
Around 1350 BC, Sidon was part of theEgyptian Empire and ruled byZimredda of Sidon. During the Amarna Period, Egypt went into decline, leading to uprising and turmoil in the Levant. There was rivalry between Lebanese coastal city-states fighting for dominance, withAbimilku of Tyre in the south, andRib-Hadda of Byblos in the north. Byblos became significantly weakened as the dominant city on the Lebanese coast. Further north, the Akkar Plain rebelled and became thekingdom of Amurru with Hittite support. The Mitanni Empire, an ally of the Egyptians, had dominated Syria but now fell apart due to the military campaigns ofSuppiluliuma I of Hatti. Tutankhamun and his general Horemheb scrambled to keep Egyptian control over southern Levant, as the Hittites became overlords in the north.
The oldest testimony documenting words in thePhoenician language of Sidon, is also from this period. The Book of Deuteronomy (3, 9) reads: "the Sidonians call Hermon Sirion". In other words:Mount Hermon was called "Sirion", in (the Phoenician language of) Sidon.
Persian style bullprotome found in Sidon gives testimony of theAchaemenid rule and influence. Marble, 5th century BC
Sidon was one of the most importantPhoenician cities, and it may have been the oldest. From there and other ports, a great Mediterranean commercial empire was founded.Homer praised the skill of its craftsmen in producing glass, purple dyes, and its women's skill at the art of embroidery. It was also from here that a colonising party went to found the city ofTyre. Tyre also grew into a great city, and in subsequent years there was competition between the two, each claiming to be the metropolis ('Mother City') ofPhoenicia.
During the Phoenician era, Sidon thrived on two pivotal industries: glass manufacturing andpurple dye production. The city's glass production operated on an extensive scale, while the manufacturing of purple dye held nearly equal importance.[10][11] The magnitude of Sidon's purple dye production was evident through a considerable mound of discardedMurex trunculus shells discovered near the southern harbor.[6] These shells were broken to extract the precious pigment, so rare that it became synonymous with royalty.[10][11]
In AD 1855, the sarcophagus of KingEshmun’azar II was discovered. From a Phoenician inscription on its lid, it appears that he was a "king of the Sidonians," probably in the 5th century BC, and that his mother was a priestess of‘Ashtart, "the goddess of the Sidonians."[12] In this inscription the godsEshmun andBa‘al Sidon 'Lord of Sidon' (who may or may not be the same) are mentioned as chief gods of the Sidonians. ‘Ashtart is entitled‘Ashtart-Shem-Ba‘al, '‘Ashtart the name of the Lord', a title also found in anUgaritic text.[13]
Nebuchadnezzar II subjugated the city to be part of theNeo-Babylonian Empire.[14] Sidon's navy played a significant role in theBattle of Salamis in 480 BC, aligning with the Persian fleet against the Greeks. From the mid-fifth century BC onward, warships became a prominent feature on the city's coinage.[6] At the end of thePersian era, in 351 BC, Phoenicia was invaded byArtaxerxes III.[15]
Like other Phoenician city-states, Sidon suffered from a succession of conquerors, first by theAchaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, ending with its occupation byAlexander the Great in 333 BC, and the start of theHellenistic period of Sidon's history.[15] The Persian influence seems to have been profound, as is observed in the change of the architectural style of the city. In exchange for supporting his conquest ofEgypt, KingCambyses II of Persia awarded Sidon with the territories ofDor,Joppa, and thePlain of Sharon.[a][b][17]
Under theDiadochi or successors of Alexander, it enjoyed relative autonomy and organised games and competitions in which the greatest athletes of the region participated. In the Hellenistic periodnecropolis of Sidon, important finds such as theAlexander Sarcophagus (likely the tomb of KingAbdalonymus rather than Alexander[6]), theLycian tomb and the Sarcophagus of the Crying Women were discovered, which are now on display at theArchaeological Museum ofIstanbul.[18]
When Sidon fell under Roman domination, it continued to mint its own silver coins.[19] The city was embellished byHerod, king ofJudaea,[20] who built there a theatre.[21] By theFirst Jewish–Roman War, Sidon sheltered enoughJews that local pagans hesitated to attack them during the broader massacre of Jews in Greco-Syrian towns in 66 CE, as documented byJosephus.[20]
ThePeutinger Table showing the location of Tyre and Sidon within the Roman Empire
During the 12th century,Benjamin of Tudela noted the presence of approximately twenty Jews, possibly families, in Sidon, which he described as a "large city."[20]
After Sidon came underOttoman Turkish rule in the early 16th century, it became the capital of theSidon Eyalet (province) and regained a great deal of its earlier commercial importance.[27] In 1521,Moses Basola encountered twenty families ofMusta'rabi Jews during his visit to Sidon.[20]
During the 18th century, the city was dominated by the Hammud family of notables, who monopolized the production and exporting of cotton in the region and built numerous palaces and public works in the city. The Hammuds also served as government customs agents and tax collectors for various Ottoman religious foundations.[27]
During theEgyptian–Ottoman War, Sidon, like much ofOttoman Syria, was occupied by the forces ofMuhammad Ali of Egypt. His ambitions were opposed by the British Empire, which backed the Ottomans. TheBritish AdmiralCharles Napier, commanding a mixed squadron of British, Turkish and Austrian ships, bombarded Sidon on 26 September 1840, and landed with a column. Sidon capitulated in two days, and the British went on toAcre. This action was recalled in two Royal Navy vessels being namedHMS Sidon.[28]
The 19th century brought significant changes to the Jewish community of Sidon. By 1830, the community, comprising around twenty-five families of primarily Arabic-speaking merchants, had customs akin to those ofJudean Jews. Starting in 1850, the community witnessed growth asMaghrebi Jews, initially settled in theChouf Mountains above Beirut, migrated to Sidon andBeirut amidst escalatingDruze-Maronite tensions and the ensuing 1860 war. With roots in mountain traditions, they introduced citrus cultivation on the outskirts of Sidon, leading to the construction of a newsynagogue in 1860 to meet the needs of the expanding community.[20]
From 1887 theRoyal necropolis of Sidon was extensively excavated by the Ottomans, and its treasures transferred toIstanbul (like theAlexander sarcophagus). Sidon was a small fishing town of 10,000 inhabitants in 1900.
AfterWorld War I it became part of the FrenchMandate ofLebanon.[29] DuringWorld War II the city, together with the rest of Lebanon, wascaptured by British forces fighting against theVichy French, and following the war it became a major city of independentLebanon.[30] Following the1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight,Palestinian refugees arrived in Sidon, as in other Lebanese cities, and were settled at the large refugee camps ofEin el-Hilweh andMieh Mieh.[31] At first these consisted of enormous rows of tents, but gradually houses were constructed. The refugee camps constituted de facto neighborhoods of Sidon, but had a separate legal and political status which made them into a kind of enclaves. At the same time, the remaining Jews of the city fled, and the Jewish cemetery fell into disrepair, threatened by coastal erosion.
OnEaster Sunday, 19 April 1981, at least sixteen people were killed in Sidon after the (South Lebanon Army) SLA's long-range artillery indiscriminately shelled the city centre. It was reported that it was in response to a request fromBashir Gemayel in connection with ongoing Syrian attacks onPhalangist positions aroundZahle. Israel denied involvement.[32] After the 1982 Israeliinvasion of Lebanon Sidon was occupied by theIsraeli army for almost two and a half years.[33]
On 18 August 1997, following a roadside bomb nearJezzine which killed two teenage members of aSLA leader's family, SLA artillery shelled Sidon killing seven civilians and wounding thirty-five.Hizbollah responded the following day by firing 60–80 rockets into thesecurity zone and northern Israel. According toUNIFIL observers the missiles appeared to be targeted at uninhabited areas. The attack on Sidon is credited with leading to a truce between Hizbollah andAmal and increased cooperation between the two groups and theLebanese Army. This was evident in theAnsariya ambush the following month.[34]
On 8 June 1999 two gunmen entered the Palais de Justice, Sidon's main courthouse, and shot dead three magistrates and a chief prosecutor. The attackers escaped. No group claimed responsibility but suspicion focused onOsbat al-Ansar whose leader had been sentenced to deathin absentia for the murder of the head of theSufiAl-Ahbash movement and the attempted assassination of themufti ofTripoli. He was believed to be in hiding in theAin al-Hilwa refugee camp.[35]
Studies in 2000 showed a population of 65,000 in the city, and around 200,000 in the metropolitan area. The little level land around the city is used for cultivation of wheat, vegetables, and fruits, especially citrus and bananas. The fishing in the city remains active with a newly opened fishery that sells fresh fish by bidding every morning. The ancient basin was transformed into a fishing port, while a small quay was constructed to receive small commercial vessels (see "Old City" and the "Architecture and landscape" sections below).
Panorama of Sidon as seen from the top of the Sea Castle, 2009
This sectarian and demographic division rose to the surface during theLebanese Civil War, when armed clashes erupted between Sunni Muslims and Christians. The clashes ended with the surrender of the Christian front, and Christians were forced to move to eastBeirut. After the war ended in 1990, some Christians gradually returned to their hometowns but in 2000 many fled to Israel. The local politics of Sidon in the 20th century was mainly dominated up till the 1980s by allegiances around two main families, theEl-Bizri and Saad. The El-Bizri politicians were known for their business connections, close ties with eminent Lebanese and Levantine leaders, and their bent on serving the Lebanese state as government ministers, officials and mayors. The Saad politicians tended to be populist and became engaged in violent protests in the 1940s, 1950s and then during the Lebanese civil war as Nasserites (populist followers ofNasser in Lebanon).
The local political conflict between these two families was always resolved through amicable means and ties of kinship. Their hold over the political aspects of the city was similar to that of Mediterranean families in Sicily or to being also influenced by the ties of Arab families, clans, and tribes in traditionalist forms. The most notable figures of the El-Bizri family in the first half of the 20th century were: Ahmad El-Bizri (born 1899), Salah El-Bizri, Eizeddine El-Bizri (commonly known as Eizzo) and Anwar El-Bizri (born 1910). These four brothers were businessmen and politicians who dominated the political life of the city up till the late 1940s, using traditional inherited forms of governance since Ottoman times. With intelligence and strength they maintained their power for over 50 years. It is from their ranks thatMaarouf Saad started his public life, and their close cousins, Nazih El-Bizri, Amin El-Bizri, and Fouad El-Bizri became the next generation of politicians and statesmen in Lebanon; holding positions as ministers and members of parliament.
The El-Bizri and the Saad political practices were bent on social justice and on local service in public affairs. The El-Bizri were since the Ottoman rule bent on serving the state, and this continued with their loyalty and support to the successive governments of Lebanon since the times of independence. They also helped eminent politicians and statesmen from Sidonian descent such as the Prime MinistersRiad Solh,Takieddine el-Solh and Rashid Solh, they also gave their support to former Prime MinisterSaeb Salam, father ofTamam Salam, Prime Minister 2014–2016. The presence of the El-Bizris was at times intimidating on the local scene, but they were also known for their goodwill and dignified public service.
The Saad family developed their links with Nasserism in the 1950s and engaged in the uprising and armed protest of 1958 against the government of the Lebanese President Chamoun. They also became involved in the civil war as part of the left wing politics of the Lebanon (Al-Haraka al-Wataniyya) with PLO connections, and they actively contributed to resisting the Israeli occupation after 1982. The Saads remained populist in their politics and focused on the grassroots, while the El-Bizri were generally appealing to the middle and upper classes. In the middle 1980s, the Hariri family began to rise to prominence and became the most influential in Sidon in political and financial terms, even though the presence of the Saad and the El-Bizri in local politics remained significant at the level of visibility and activism. The Saad family developed its original politics from within the sphere of influence of the El-Bizri family and then became a power to reckon with on its own after 1948, and most powerfully in 1958, then in the civil war and until the present today.
Maarouf Saad, the leader of his family, and a local influential politician, was assassinated at the eve of the Lebanese civil war in 1975. The Saads retained their populism and grassroots appeal, and attracted a core of loyal adherents since the middle of the 20th century. While the El-Bizri were Levantine in their Arabism (namely focused mainly on Bilad al-Shaam in regional politics), and the Solh being also similar to them in this, the Saad were leaning more towards a broader pan-Arabism (Nasserite, Libyan, and then Syrian). The Hariri family started to rise to political and economic prominence in the 1980s and became perhaps the most influential family in Lebanon by the mid-1990s, following modern forms of political practice through a large party (Future Movement) that cuts across various economic classes.
According to a 2013United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) report "data also point to an increase in urban poverty especially in Lebanon's largest cities suburbs such as Beirut, Tripoli and Saida, as illustrated by poverty-driven symptoms (child labour, over-crowding and deteriorated environment conditions)."[36] In another UNDP report, the author discusses the development predominance of Beirut over the rest of the regions of Lebanon (North, South and Beqaa) is a well-known imbalance that can be dated to the early 19th century.[37] With the expansion of Beirut in the 1870s, urban growth in the future capital outpaced Tripoli and Saida. Transportation routes, missionary schools, universities and hospitals as well as the Beirut port development and the commerce of silk participated to the fortification of Beirut as a major trade center for Mediterranean exchange (ARNAUD 1993; LABAKI 1999: 23). However, the establishment of Great Lebanon in 1920, under the French mandate, added the poorer areas of the North (Akkar), Beqaa (Baalbak-Hermel) and the South (Jabal Aamel) to the relatively affluent cities of Mount Lebanon. This addition made of Lebanon a country composed of unequally developed regions. This legacy remains a heavy load to bear socially, culturally, economically and politically. Even though the public policies elaborated by the young Lebanese State were attempting to have regional perspectives, the early urban planning schemes reveal a development approach exclusively axed[dubious –discuss] on Beirut and its suburbs.[citation needed]
The post war development policy of the State, promoted by Hariri government (1992–1998), was centered around balanced development and is widely inspired by the 1943 Pact and the 1989 Taef agreement (LABAKI1993: 104). However the application of this policy aims mainly at the rehabilitation and construction of roads and infrastructures (electricity, telephone, sewage). Another of its components is the rehabilitation of government buildings (airport, port, schools, universities and hospitals). Transportation projects (mainly concentrated on the coastal line) constitute 25% of the budget of 10-year economic plan developed by the CDR (BAALBAKI 1994: 90). However, all these projects are predominantly concentrated around Beirut, ignoring the regions.
The formerMakab (waste dump) and the treatment plant
Near the southern entrance to the city used to be a 'rubbish mountain' called at the time by the locals theMakab; namely, a 600,000 cubic metre heap that reached the height of a four-story building. It was originally created to dispose of the remains of buildings destroyed in Israeli air strikes during the 1982 invasion, but it then became the main dump for the city. Growing out of the sea, it became an environmental hazard, withmedical waste and plastic bags polluting nearby fishing grounds.[citation needed]
Sidon politicians, including the Hariri family, failed for decades to resolve theMakab crisis—which has endangered residents' health (especially during episodic burning). In 2004, Engineer Hamzi Moghrabi, a Sidon native, conceived the idea to establish a treatment plant for the city's decades-old chronic waste problem. He established the privately funded IBC Enviro and the treatment plant became operational in 2013.[38]
The Ministry of Environment came up with a $50,000+ plan to clean the whole area and transform the dump into a green space, along with other heaps in the country. Qamla beach in Sidon, a coast in close proximity to the Sea Castle, witnessed a large municipal cleanup in May 2011, as it was an easy target of rubbish being washed up by the Makab. These plans aim to revive the former glory of the city's coasts and attract tourists who avoided swimming in Sidon's sea before. The project of cleaning the region where the waste dump has already started, and currently a waves-barrier is being built, and the vast bulk of the waste dump being cleared.[39][40][41][42]
The city of Sidon is administered by the Municipality of Sidon. The municipality is constituted of a council of 21 members including the City Mayor and his Deputy. It has administrative and financial independence but remains under the control and supervision of the central government, specifically the Ministry of Interior. The municipality's jurisdiction is limited to a region of 786 hectares in area and 5 meters in elevation, while each of the city's suburbs is administered by its own independent municipal council. Sidon is the center of theGovernorate of South Lebanon, and hosts the seat of the Governor of Southern Lebanon. The city is also the center of the Sidon District and the Union of Sidon and Zahrani Municipalities (founded in 1978 and contains 15 municipalities). Sidon hosts the southern regional headquarters of a series of governmental facilities like the Central Bank of Lebanon, Électricité du Liban, Central Telecommunications Station and others. It is also the home of the Justice Palace of South Lebanon in its new headquarters on East Boulevard (the old headquarters were an oldOttomanSaray that is currently occupied by the LSF and is planned to be transformed into a cultural center by the municipality).[citation needed]
In the 2000 and 2005 parliamentary elections, the Sidon District along with theTyre andBint Jbeil districts formed the first electoral district of South Lebanon. However, in the 2009 elections – and due to the reactivation of the 1960 electoral law – the city of Sidon was separated from its district to form a separate electoral district.[citation needed]
The overwhelming majority of Sidon's population belong to the Sunni sect of Islam, with a small number of Shiites and Christians. Sidon is the seat of the Greek Melkite Catholic Archbishop of Sidon andDeir el Qamar, and has housed a significant Catholic population throughout its history.[45] Sidon also hosts the seat of theShiiteAyatollah of South Lebanon.[citation needed]
In the 1930s, when Lebanon was still under the French mandate, Sidon had the largestJewish population in Lebanon, estimated at 3,588, compared to 3,060 inBeirut,[46] however by the end of 1990s most of the Jewish population had emigrated leaving their cemitery and other sites in a state of abandonment.[47]
Alleyway inside the Old SouksAlleyways of the Old City of Sidon
Sidon Sea Castle, a fortress built by theCrusaders in the early 13th century. It is located near the Port of Sidon.
Sidon Soap Museum. It traces the history of the soap making in the region and its different manufacturing steps.
Khan al-Franj ("Caravanserai of theFrench"), a complex built in the 16th century, though erroneously credited to Emir Fakhreddine II in the 17th century. It gained its name for accommodating French merchants and goods in order to develop trade with Europe. This is a typicalkhan with a large rectangular courtyard and a central fountain surrounded by covered galleries.
Debbane Palace, a historical residence built in 1721, an example of Arab-Ottoman architecture.[48] This villa was earlier occupied by the Hammoud family in the 18th century and also by members of the famous Ottoman aristocrats of theAbaza clan in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The vaults at the ground level being originally stables for the villa residents and then turned into shops as part of the old souks, and known until recent time by association to the Abazas.
The Castle of St. Louis (Qalaat Al Muizz). It was built by the Crusaders in the 13th century on top of the remains of a fortress built by theFatimid caliphAl Muizz. It is located to the south of the Old Souks nearMurex Hill.
Eshmun Temple, dedicated to thePhoenician god of healing. Built in the 7th century BC, it is located in the north of Sidon near theAwali River.
TheBritish War Cemetery in Sidon. Opened in 1943 by units of His Majesty's (King George VI) British Forces occupying the Lebanon after the1941 campaign against theVichy French troops. It was originally used for the burial of men who died while serving with the occupation force, but subsequently the graves of a number of the casualties of the 1941 campaign were moved into the cemetery from other burial grounds or from isolated positions in the vicinity. The cemetery now contains 176Commonwealth burials of theSecond World War and nine war graves of other nationalities. It was designed by G. Vey. It is perhaps the only garden in modern Sidon that is elegantly kept and cared for. It is not a public garden, but can be visited when the wardens have its gateways opened.[49]
Sidon is home to numerous educational facilities ranging from public elementary schools to private universities. According to a 2006 study, the city is home to 29 schools that serve a total of 18,731 students: 37% are in public schools, 63% are in private schools. Sidon also contains 10 universities, 5 of which are private universities.
The following archaeological sites in the area indicate settlements from the earliestprehistorical times.
Sidon I, II and III are prehistoric sites, while Sidon I is the tell of ancient Sidon starting from the Early Bronze Age.
Sidon I is anarchaeological site located to the east of the city, south of the road toJezzine. An assemblage offlint tools was found by P. E. Gigues suggested to date between 3800 and 3200 BC. The collection included narrowaxes orchisels that were polished on one side and flaked on the other, similar to ones found at Ain Cheikh, Nahr Zahrani and Gelal en Namous.[9] The collection appears to have gone missing from theArchaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut.[50]
Sidon II is said to be "near the church" at approximately fifty metersabove sea level. P. E. Gigues suggested that the industry found on the surface of this site dated to theAcheulean.[9]
In the area of this ruined Crusader castle, recent excavations uncovered a late Early Bronze Age I (EB I) settlement on bedrock. Here, an uninterrupted sequence from EB I to EB III was found. A modest third-millennium BC settlement consisting of domestic installations and tombs was also uncovered.[51][52] Yet the following history of Sidon was not clarified. Very little has been known about the location, extent, and significance of Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Sidon until recently.[52]
Since the early 21st century,Tell el-Burak excavations have helped significantly in this area, because it was an active settlement during MBA, and quite well preserved. Tell el-Burak is located along the coast 9 km south from Sidon. Previously, there was a big gap in the history of this whole coastal area from the end of theEarly Bronze Age until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, when Sidon is first mentioned in the historical texts.[53]
Archaeologists determined that Sidon was clearly the big power centre during MBA, controlling significant territory. So there appears to have been the "Kingdom of Sidon" that controlled el-Burak, and many other surrounding areas.[53]
Magharet Abloun, Greco-Roman part (Renan, 1864; Contenau, 1914–1924)
Helalié/Baramié/Mar Elias (William John Bankes, 1816; Renan 1864; Contenau, 1914; M. Meurdrac & L. Albanèse, 1938–1939)
In indication of the high-profile of the old city of Sidon in archaeological expeditions, and mainly in the 19th century, in October 1860 the famous French scholarErnest Renan was entrusted with an archaeological mission to Lebanon, which included the search for the antique parts of Sidon. The Phoenician inscriptions that he discovered, and his field data, were eventually published in his notebook the:Mission de Phénicie (1864–1874;Phoenician Expedition).
TheSt. Louis castle grounds were excavated in 1914–1920 by a French team.[55] Then eastwards a new site was also excavated by another generation of French expeditions in the 1960s. This same site received renewed attention in 1998 when theDirectorate General of Antiquities in Lebanon authorized theBritish Museum to begin excavations on this area of land that was specifically demarcated for archaeological research. This has resulted in published papers, with a special focus on studying ceramics.[56]
The archaeological fieldwork was not fully undertaken since the independence of the Lebanon. The main finds are displayed in theNational Museum in Beirut. The fieldwork was also interrupted during the long civil war period, and it is now resumed but at a timid and slow scale, and not involving major international expeditions or expertise. Perhaps this is also indicative of the general lack in cultural interests among the authorities of this city, and almost of the non-existence of notable intellectual activities in its modern life. There are signs that the locals are beginning to recognize the value of the medieval quarters, but this remains linked to minor individual initiatives and not a coordinated collective effort to rehabilitate it like it has been the case withByblos, even though the old district of Sidon contains a great wealth in old and ancient architecture.
The account ascribed to the Phoenician historianSanchuniathon makes Sidon a daughter ofPontus, son ofNereus. She is said there to have first invented musical song from the sweetness of her voice.
Fayza Ahmed (Al-Rawwass), Arab singer formerly based in Egypt
Afif al-Bizri, (AfifEl-Bizri) former Chief of Staff of the Syrian armed forces with a high-standing military rank and political profile during the Syria-Egypt republican union of theNasser era.
Raymond Audi, international banker, and former Minister of Refugees in the government of Lebanon (Originally Palestinian)
Nazih El Bizri, longstanding politician: mayor of Sidon from 1952 till 1959, Member of Lebanese Parliament from 1953 till 1958 and from 1972 till 1992. Lebanese Minister of Health, and Minister of Social Affairs from 1955 till 1956, then from 1972 till 1973, and from 1980 till 1982.
Ahmad El-Bizri, Salah-Eddine El-Bizri (Mayor of Sidon from 1937 till 1951. Member of Parliament from 1951 till 1953), Ezzedine El-Bizri, Anwar El-Bizri.
Bahia Hariri, former Minister of Education in the governments of Lebanon and philanthropist
Rafic Hariri, former Prime Minister, billionaire and international businessman
Bahaa Hariri, international businessman and billionaire, son of Rafic Hariri
Saad Hariri, youngest former Prime Minister of Lebanon
Adel Osseiran, co-founder of modern Lebanon, was a prominent Lebanese statesman, a former Speaker of the Lebanese Parliament, and one of the founding fathers of the Lebanese Republic.
^The territories of the Phoenician cities could be discontiguous: thus, the lands and the cities of Dor and Joppa belonging to the Sidonians were separated from Sidon by the city of Tyre.[16]
^abcdefGates, Charles (2011).Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 197, 190, 191.ISBN978-0-203-83057-4.
^abJacoby, David (1997). "Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade".Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean. pp. 455 ff and notes [17]–[19].
^ab"Porphyrogennetos".The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York, NY & Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1701.ISBN0-195-04652-8.
^Colledge, James Joseph; Warlow, Ben (2006).Ships of the Royal Navy: the complete record of all fighting ships of the Royal Navy from the 15th century to the present (New rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publ.ISBN978-1-86176-281-8.
^Simon, Reeva S., Michael M. Laskier, and Sara Reguer, eds. 2003. The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. New York: Columbia University Press, pg. 332
^Reading Room Manchester."Cemetery Details". CWGC.Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved29 January 2015.
^Gigues, P. E. (1937–1938), "Lébé'a, Kafer-Garra, Qrayé: nécropoles de la région sidonienne".BMB (Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth), vol. 1, pp. 35–76, vol. 2, pp. 30–72, vol. 3, pp. 54–63.
^Doumet-Serhal, C. 2006. "The Early Bronze Age in Sidon: 'College Site' Excavations (1998–2000–2001)".Bibliothèque archeologique et historique 178. Beirut: Institut français du Proche-Orient
^abDoumet-Serhal, C. 2010. "Sidon during the Bronze Age: Burials, Rituals and Feasting Grounds at 'College Site'".Near Eastern Archaeology, 73:114–129.
^Klein, Reuven Chaim (Rudolph) (April 2018)."Nations and Super-Nations of Canaan"(PDF).Jewish Bible Quarterly.46 (2): 84.ISSN0792-3910. citesRashi andRadak as reading that verse as saying that the city of Sidon itself was not said to be part of Zebulun's territory, while the medieval exgeteElazar Rokeach understood that it was.
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Aubet, Maria Eugenia (2001).The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade. 2nd ed. Translated by Mary Turton. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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