Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the nameTrinacria.
To the north-east, it is separated fromCalabria and the rest of the Italian mainland by theStrait of Messina, about 3 km (1.9 mi) wide in the north, and about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide in the southern part.[7] The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km (170 mi) long measured as a straight line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km (110 mi); total coast length isestimated at 1,484 km (922 mi). The total area of the island is 25,711 km2 (9,927 sq mi),[8] while theAutonomous Region of Sicily (which includes the smaller surrounding islands ofLipari,Egadi,Ustica, andPantelleria) has an area of 27,708 km2 (10,698 sq mi).[9]
The terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, themountain ranges ofMadonie, 2,000 m (6,600 ft),Nebrodi, 1,800 m (5,900 ft), andPeloritani, 1,300 m (4,300 ft), are an extension of the mainlandApennines. The cone ofMount Etna dominates the eastern coast. In the southeast lie the lowerHyblaean Mountains, 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[10] The mines of theEnna andCaltanissetta districts were part of a leadingsulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, but have declined since the 1950s.
Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. This is due to Sicily being geographically on the northern edge of theAfrican Plate.[11] Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and casts black ash over the island with its recurrent eruptions. It stands 3,403 metres (11,165 ft) high as of September 2024.[12] It is the highest mountain in Italy south of theAlps. Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 (459 sq mi) with a basal circumference of 140 km (87 mi). This makes it the largest of the threeactive volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest,Mount Vesuvius. InGreek mythology, the deadly monsterTyphon was trapped under the mountain byZeus, the god of the sky.[13] Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily.
The three volcanoes ofVulcano,Stromboli andLipari are also active, although the last is usually dormant. Off the southern coast of Sicily, the underwater volcano ofFerdinandea, which is part of the largerEmpedocles volcano, last erupted in 1831. It is located between the coast ofAgrigento and the island ofPantelleria (which itself is a dormant volcano).
From a geographical perspective, also forming a part of Sicily is the Maltese Archipelago, the islands home to therepublic of Malta.
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of CataniaTheMonti Sicani in western Sicily
The mountains of Sicily form a significant part of the island's diverse landscape, withMount Etna, one of the world's most active volcanoes, being the highest and most notable peak. Other important mountain ranges include theNebrodi,Madonie andPeloritani mountains ranges.
Several riversdrain the island, most of which flow through the central area and enter the sea at the south of the island. TheSalso flows through parts of Enna and Caltanissetta before entering theMediterranean Sea at theport ofLicata. To the east, theAlcantara flows through the province ofMessina and enters the sea atGiardini Naxos, and theSimeto, which flows into theIonian Sea south ofCatania. Other important rivers on the island are theBelice andPlatani in the southwest.
Sicily has for the most part a typicalMediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:Csa) with mild and wet winters and hot, dry summers with changeable intermediate seasons. On the coasts, especially in the southwest, the climate is affected by the African currents and summers can be hot.
Snow falls above 900 metres, but it can fall in the hills. The interior mountains, especiallyNebrodi,Madonie, andEtna, enjoy a mountain climate, with heavy snowfalls during winter. The summit of Mount Etna is usually snow-capped from October to May.
In the summer, thesirocco – the wind from the Sahara – can be felt. Rainfall is scarce, and in some provinces a water crisis can occur.
According to the Regional Agency for Waste and Water, on 10 August 1999, the weather station ofCatenanuova (EN) recorded an unofficial maximum temperature of 48.5 °C (119 °F).[16] On 11 August 2021, a newhighest temperature record forEurope with a reading of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F) was set near the city ofSyracuse.[17] Total precipitation is highly variable, generally increasing with elevation. In general, the southern and southeast coast receives the least rainfall (less than 50 cm (20 in)), and the northern and northeastern highlands the most (over 100 cm (39 in)).
Sicily is an often-quoted example of man-madedeforestation, which has occurred since Roman times when the island was turned into an agricultural region.[10] This gradually dried the climate, leading to a decline in rainfall and the drying of rivers. The central and southwest provinces are practically devoid of forest.[18] In Northern Sicily, there are three important forests; near Mount Etna, in theNebrodi Mountains and in theBosco della Ficuzza Natural Reserve nearPalermo. The Nebrodi Mountains Regional Park, established on 4 August 1993 and covering 86,000 hectares (210,000 acres), is the largest protected natural area of Sicily; it contains the largest forest in Sicily, theCaronia. TheHundred Horse Chestnut (Castagno dei Cento Cavalli), inSant'Alfio, on the eastern slopes of Mount Etna, is the largest and oldest knownchestnut tree in the world at 2,000–4,000 years old.[19]
The nameSicilia was given to theRoman province in 241 BC. It is named after theSicels, who inhabited the eastern part of the island during theIron Age. The ancient name of the island isTrinacria (GreekΤρινακρία "having three headlands") for its triangular shape, likely a re-interpretation of earlier (Homeric)Thrinacia. The Greek name was rendered asTrīnācrĭa inclassical Latin (Virgil,Ovid).[25][26]
Humans first colonized Sicily towards the end of theLate Pleistocene, around 16,000 years ago, by people associated with theEpigravettian culture.[27]
Discoveries ofdolmens on the island (dating to the second half of the third millennium BC) seem to offer new insights into the culture of primitive Sicily.[28] The impact of at least two influences is clear: the European one coming from the Northwest, and the Mediterranean influence of an eastern heritage.[29]
The original classical-era inhabitants of Sicily comprised three defined groups of theancient peoples of Italy: theSicani, theElymians and theSicels. The most prominent and by far the earliest of these were theSicani, who (Thucydides writes) arrived from theIberian Peninsula (perhapsCatalonia).[30][31] Some modern scholars, however, suggest classifying the Sicani as possibly anIllyrian tribe.[32] Important historical evidence has been discovered in the form of cave drawings by the Sicani, dated from the end of thePleistocene epoch around 8000 BC.[33] TheElymians, thought to have come from the area of theAegean Sea, became the next tribe to join the Sicanians on Sicily.[34]
No evidence survives of warring between tribes, but the Sicanians moved eastwards when the Elymians settled in the northwest corner of the island. TheSicels are thought[33] to have originated inLiguria; they arrived from mainland Italy in 1200 BC and forced the Sicanians to move back across Sicily and to settle in the middle of the island.[33] Other minorItalic groups who settled in Sicily included theAusones (Aeolian Islands,Milazzo) and theMorgetes ofMorgantina.
ThePhoenician settlements in the western part of the island predate the arrival ofGreek colonists.[35] From about 750 BC, the Greeks began to live in Sicily (Ancient Greek:Σικελία –Sikelia), establishing many significant settlements. The most important colony was inSyracuse; others grew up atAkragas,Selinunte,Gela,Himera andZancle.[36] The native Sicani and Sicel peoples becameabsorbed into theHellenic culture with relative ease, and the area became part ofMagna Graecia along with the coasts of thesouth of the Italian peninsula, which the Greeks had also colonised. Sicily had fertile soils, and the successful introduction ofolives andgrape vines fostered profitable trading.[37]Greek culture significantly centered aroundGreek religion, and the settlers built manytemples throughout Sicily, including several in theValley of the Temples atAgrigento.[38]
Politics on the island became intertwined with those of Greece;Syracuse became desired by theAthenians who set out on theSicilian Expedition (415–413 BC) during thePeloponnesian War. Syracuse gainedSparta andCorinth as allies and, as a result, defeated the Athenian expedition. The victors destroyed the Athenian army and their ships, selling most of the survivors intoslavery.[39]
The Greek kingdom of Syracuse controlled most of eastern Sicily whileCarthage controlled the western side.[40] The two cultures began to clash, leading to theGreek-Punic wars (between 580 and 265 BC). The Greek states had begun to make peace with theRoman Republic in 262 BC,[citation needed] before the Romans sought toannex Sicily as their republic's firstprovince. Rome attacked Carthage's holdings in Sicily in theFirst Punic War (264 to 241 BC) and won, making Sicily–with the exception of Syracuse–the first Roman province outside of theItalian Peninsula by 242 BC.[41]
In theSecond Punic War (218 to 201 BC), the Carthaginians attempted to recapture Sicily. Some of the Greek cities on the island who were loyal to Rome switched sides to help the Carthaginians, prompting a Roman military response.Archimedes, who lived in Syracuse, helped defend his city from Roman invasion; Roman troops killed him after they captured Syracuse in 212 BC.[42] The Carthaginian attempt failed, and Rome became more unrelenting in its annihilation of the invaders;Roman consulM. Valerian told theRoman Senate in 210 BC that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily".[43]
As the Roman Republic'sgranary, Sicily ranked as an important province, divided into twoquaestorships: Syracuse to the east andLilybaeum to the west.[35] Roman rule introduced theLatin language to the island, which underwent a slow process oflatinisation but Sicilian culture remained largely Greek and the Greek language did not become extinct on the island, facilitating itsre-hellenisation much later under the Byzantines.[35] The prosperity of the island went into sharp decline during the governorship ofVerres (73 to 71 BC). In 70 BC, the noted statesmanCicero condemned the misgovernment of Verres in his orationIn Verrem.[44]
Various groups used the island as a power base at different times: slave insurgents occupied it during theFirst (135−132 BC) andSecond (104−100 BC)Servile Wars.Sextus Pompey had his headquarters there during theSicilian revolt of 44 to 36 BC. Christianity first appeared in Sicily during the years following AD 200; between this time and AD 313, when EmperorConstantine the Great lifted the prohibition on Christianity, a significant number ofSicilians had becomemartyrs, includingAgatha,Christina,Lucy, andEuplius.[45] Christianity grew rapidly in Sicily over the next two centuries.[citation needed] Sicily remained a Roman province for around 700 years.[45]
TheWestern Roman Empire began falling apart after the invasion ofVandals, Alans, and Suevesacross the Rhine on the last day of 406. Eventually the Vandals, after roaming about western and southernHispania (present-dayIberia) for 20 years, moved to North Africa in 429 and occupied Carthage in 439. The Franks moved south from present-day Belgium. The Visigoths moved west and eventually settled in Aquitaine in 418; the Burgundians settled in present-day Savoy in 443.
The Vandals found themselves in a position to threaten Sicily – only 100 miles away from their North African bases.[46] After taking Carthage, the Vandals, personally led by KingGaiseric, laid siege to Palermo in 440 as the opening act in an attempt to wrest the island from Roman rule.[47] The Vandals made another attempt to take the island one year after the 455 sack of Rome, at Agrigento, but were defeated decisively byRicimir in anaval victory off Corsica in 456.[48] The island remained under Roman rule until 469. The Vandals lost possession of the island 8 years later in 477 to theEast Germanic tribe of theOstrogoths, who then controlled Italy and Dalmatia.[46] The island was returned to the Ostrogoths by payment of tribute to their kingOdoacer. He ruled Italy from 476 to 488 in the name of theByzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor. The Vandals kept a toehold inLilybaeum, a port on the west coast. They lost this in 491 after making one last attempt to conquer the island from this port.[49] The Ostrogothic conquest of Sicily (and of Italy as a whole) underTheodoric the Great began in 488. The Byzantine EmperorZeno had appointed Theodoric as a military commander in Italy. The Goths were Germanic, but Theodoric fostered Roman culture and government and allowed freedom of religion.[50] In 461 from the age of seven or eight until 17 or 18 Theodoric had become a Byzantine hostage; he resided in the great palace of Constantinople, was favored by EmperorLeo I (r. 457–474) and learned to read, write and do arithmetic.[51]
Seal of Elpidius aspatrikios andstrategos of SicilyThe Saracen conquest of the Byzantine stronghold Syracuse,Siege of Syracuse (877–878)
After taking areas occupied by the Vandals in North Africa,Justinian I retook Italy as an ambitious attempt to recover the lost provinces in the West. The re-conquests marked an end to over 150 years of accommodating policies with tribal invaders. His first target was Sicily, leading to theGothic War (535–554) between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as theByzantine Empire. Justinian's generalBelisarius was assigned to the military task.[52] Sicily was used as a base for the Byzantines to conquer the rest of Italy, includingNaples, Rome, andMilan. It took five years before the Ostrogoth capitalRavenna fell in 540.[53] However, the new Ostrogoth kingTotila counterattacked, moving down the Italian peninsula, plundering and conquering Sicily in 550. Totila was defeated and killed in theBattle of Taginae by Byzantine generalNarses in 552 but Italy was in ruins.[53]
At the time of the reconquest Greek was still the predominant language spoken on the island. Sicily was invaded by theArab forces ofCaliph Uthman in 652, but the Arabs failed to make permanent gains. They returned to Syria with their booty.[54] Raids seeking loot continued until the mid-8th century.[55]
The Eastern Roman EmperorConstans II moved fromConstantinople toSyracuse in 660. The following year he launched an assault from Sicily against theLombardDuchy of Benevento, which occupied most of southern Italy.[56] Rumors that the capital of the empire was to be moved to Syracuse probably cost Constans his life, as he was assassinated in 668.[56] His sonConstantine IV succeeded him. A brief usurpation in Sicily byMezezius was quickly suppressed by this emperor. Contemporary accounts report that the Greek language was widely spoken on the island during this period.[57] In 740 EmperorLeo III the Isaurian transferred Sicily from the jurisdiction of the church of Rome to that of Constantinople, placing the island within the eastern branch of the Church.[58]
In 826Euphemius, the Byzantine commander in Sicily, having apparently killed his wife, forced a nun to marry him. EmperorMichael II caught wind of the matter and ordered general Constantine to end the marriage and cut off Euphemius' head. Euphemius rose up, killed Constantine, and then occupied Syracuse; he, in turn, was defeated and driven out to North Africa.[59] He offered the rule of Sicily toZiyadat Allah, theAghlabid Emir ofTunisia, in return for a position as a general and a place of safety. AMuslim army was then sent to the island consisting ofArabs,Berbers,Cretans, andPersians.[59]
TheMuslim conquest of Sicily was a see-saw affair and met with fierce resistance. It took over a century for Byzantine Sicily to be conquered; the largest city, Syracuse, held out until 878 and the Greek city ofTaormina fell in 962. It was not until 965 that all of Sicily was conquered by theArabs.[59] In the 11th-century Byzantine armies carried out a partial reconquest of the island underGeorge Maniakes, but it was theirNorman mercenaries who would eventually complete the island's reconquest at the end of the century.
The language spoken in Sicily under Arab rule wasSiculo-Arabic andArabic influence is present in some Sicilian words today. Although long extinct in Sicily, the language has developed into what is now theMaltese language on the islands ofMalta today.[60]
A description ofPalermo was given byIbn Hawqal, anArab merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb, called the Al-Kasr (the palace), is the centre of Palermo to this day, with the great Friday mosque on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of al-Khalisa (modernKalsa) contained theSultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison.Ibn Hawqal estimated there were 7,000 butchers trading in 150 shops. The Muslim rule introduced lemons, oranges and sugar cane, as well as cotton and mulberries for sericulture, and introduced theQanat to improve irrigation systems for agriculture.[61] Around 1050, the western half of Sicily was ethnically and culturally distinct from central and eastern Sicily. During this time, there was also a small Jewish presence in Sicily, evidence seen in the catacombs discovered on the island.[62][63]
Palermo was initially ruled by theAghlabids; later it was the centre of the Emirate of Sicily, which was under the nominal suzerainty of theFatimid Caliphate.[citation needed] During the reign of this dynasty revolts by Byzantine Sicilians continuously occurred especially in the east where Greek-speaking Christians predominated. Parts of the island were re-occupied before revolts were quashed. Under the Arab rule the island was divided inthree administrative regions, or "vals", roughly corresponding to the three "points" of Sicily:Val di Mazara in the west;Val Demone in the northeast; andVal di Noto in the southeast. Asdhimmis, that is as members of a protected class of approved monotheists, theEastern Orthodox Christians were allowedfreedom of religion, but had to pay a tax, thejizya (in lieu of the obligatory alms tax, thezakat, paid by Muslims), and were restricted from active participation in public affairs. By the 11th century, theEmirate of Sicily began to fragment as intra-dynastic quarreling fractured the Muslim government.[59]
In 1038, seventy years after losing their last cities in Sicily, the Byzantines under the Greek generalGeorge Maniakes invaded the island together with theirVarangian andNorman mercenaries. Maniakes was killed in a Byzantine civil war in 1043 before completing a reconquest and the Byzantines withdrew. Later the Normans invaded in 1061 and after takingApulia andCalabria,Roger I occupiedMessina with an army of 700 knights.[59][64] In 1068, Roger I was victorious atMisilmeri. Most crucial was the siege of Palermo, whose fall in 1071 eventually resulted in all Sicily coming under Norman control.[65] The conquest was completed in 1091 when they capturedNoto the last Arab stronghold. Palermo continued to be the capital under theNormans. The Normans formed a small but violent ruling class. They destroyed many of the Arab towns in Sicily, and very few physical remains survive from the Arab era.[59]
The NormanHauteville family appreciated and admired the rich and layered culture in which they now found themselves. They also introduced into Sicily their own culture, customs, and politics fromNormandy. Many Normans in Sicily adopted the habits and comportment of Muslim rulers and their Byzantine subjects in dress, language, literature, even to the extent of having palaceeunuchs and, according to some accounts, a harem.[66][67]
While Roger I died in 1101, his wifeAdelaide ruled until 1112 when their sonRoger II of Sicily came of age.[64] Having succeeded his brotherSimon as Count of Sicily, Roger II was ultimately able to raise the status of the island to a kingdom in 1130, along with his other holdings, which included theMaltese Islands and the Duchies ofApulia andCalabria.[65][68]
Roger II appointed the powerful GreekGeorge of Antioch to be his "emir of emirs" and continued the syncretism of his father. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe—even wealthier than theKingdom of England.[69]
The court of Roger II became the most luminous centre of culture in the Mediterranean, both from Europe and the Middle East, like the multi-ethnicCaliphate of Córdoba, then only just eclipsed. This attracted scholars, scientists, poets, artists, and artisans of all kinds. Laws were issued in the language of the community to whom they were addressed in Norman Sicily, at the time when the culture was still heavily Arab and Greek.[70][71] Governance was by rule of law which promoted justice. Muslims, Jews,Byzantine Greeks, Lombards, and Normans worked together fairly amicably. During this time many extraordinary buildings were constructed.[70]
However this situation changed as the Normans imported immigrants fromNormandy,England, Lombardy, Piedmont, Provence andCampania to secure the island. Linguistically, the island shifted from being one-third Greek- and two-thirds Arabic-speaking at the time of the Norman conquest to becoming fullyLatinised.[71] In terms of religion the island became completely Roman Catholic (bearing in mind that until 1054 the Churches owing allegiance to the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople belonged to one Church); Sicily before the Norman conquest was under the Eastern Orthodox Patriarch.[72] After Pope Innocent III made him Papal Legate in 1098, Roger I created several Catholic bishoprics while still allowing the construction of 12 Greek-speaking monasteries (the Greek language, monasteries, and 1500 parishes continued to exist until the adherents of the Greek Rite were forced in 1585 to convert to Catholicism or leave; a small pocket of Greek-speakers still live in Messina).
After a century, the NormanHauteville dynasty died out; the last direct descendant and heir of Roger II,Constance, marriedEmperor Henry VI.[73] This eventually led to the crown of Sicily being passed to theHohenstaufen dynasty, who were Germans fromSwabia. The last of the Hohenstaufens,Frederick II, the only son ofConstance, was one of the greatest and most cultured men of the Middle Ages. His mother's will had askedPope Innocent III to undertake the guardianship of her son. Frederick was four when atPalermo, he was crownedKing of Sicily in 1198. Frederick received no systematic education and was allowed to run free in the streets ofPalermo. There he picked up the many languages he heard spoken, such as Arabic and Greek, and learned some of the lore of the Jewish community. At age twelve, he dismissed Innocent's deputy regent and took over the government; at fifteen he marriedConstance of Aragon, and began his reclamation of the imperial crown. Subsequently, due to Muslim rebellions, Frederick II destroyed the remaining Muslim presence in Sicily, estimated at 60,000 people, moving all to the city of Lucera in Apulia between 1221 and 1226.[74]
Strong opposition to French officialdom due to mistreatment and taxation saw the local peoples of Sicily rise up, leading in 1282 to aninsurrection known as theWar of the Sicilian Vespers, which eventually saw almost the entire French population on the island killed.[73] During the war, the Sicilians turned toPeter III of Aragon, son-in-law of the last Hohenstaufen king, for support after being rejected by the Pope. Peter gained control of Sicily from the French, who, however, retained control of theKingdom of Naples. A crusade was launched in August 1283 against Peter III and the Crown of Aragon byPope Martin IV (a pope fromÎle-de-France), but it failed. The wars continued until thepeace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Peter's sonFrederick III recognized as the king of the Isle of Sicily, whileCharles II was recognized as the king of Naples byPope Boniface VIII.[73] Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives of the kings of Aragon until 1409 and then as part of theCrown of Aragon.[37]
In October 1347, in Messina, Sicily, theBlack Death first arrived in Europe.[75]
The onset of theSpanish Inquisition in 1492 led toFerdinand II decreeing the expulsion of all Jews from Sicily.[73] The eastern part of the island was hit by destructive earthquakes in 1542 and 1693. Just a few years before the latter earthquake, the island was struck by aplague.[73] Theearthquake in 1693 took an estimated 60,000 lives.[76] There were revolts during the 17th century, but these were quelled with force, especially the revolts of Palermo and Messina.[37]North Africanslave raids discouraged settlement along the coast until the 19th century.[77][78] TheTreaty of Utrecht in 1713 saw Sicily assigned to theHouse of Savoy; however, this period of rule lasted only seven years, as it was exchanged for the island ofSardinia withEmperor Charles VI of the AustrianHabsburg Dynasty.[79]
Following this, Sicily joined theNapoleonic Wars, and subsequently the British underLord William Bentinck established a military and diplomatic presence on the island to protect against a French invasion. Sicilian volunteers joined the British military to form theRoyal Sicilian Regiment, which saw action at theBattle of Maida and then transferred toIberia. After the wars were won, Sicily and Naples formally merged as theTwo Sicilies under the Bourbons. Majorrevolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against the Bourbon government with Sicily seeking independence; the second of which, the1848 revolution resulted in a short period of independence for Sicily. However, in 1849 the Bourbons retook control of the island and dominated it until 1860.[82]
TheExpedition of the Thousand led byGiuseppe Garibaldi captured Sicily in 1860, as part of theRisorgimento.[83] The conquest started atMarsala, and native Sicilians joined him in the capture of the southern Italian peninsula. Garibaldi's march was completed with thesiege of Gaeta, where the finalBourbons were expelled and Garibaldi announced his dictatorship in the name ofVictor Emmanuel II ofKingdom of Sardinia.[84] Sicily became part of the Kingdom of Sardinia after a referendum in which more than 75% of Sicily voted in favour of the annexation on 21 October 1860 (although not everyone was allowed to vote). As a result of theproclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, Sicily became part of the kingdom on 17 March 1861.
The Sicilian economy (and the widermezzogiorno economy) remained relatively underdeveloped after theItalian unification, in spite of the strong investments made by theKingdom of Italy in terms of modern infrastructure, and this caused an unprecedentedwave of emigration.[83] In 1894, organisations of workers and peasants known as theFasci Siciliani protested against the bad social and economic conditions of the island, but they were suppressed in a few days.[85][86]
This period was also characterized by the first contact between theSicilian Mafia (the crime syndicate also known as Cosa Nostra) and the Italian government. The Mafia's origins are still uncertain, but it is generally accepted that it emerged in the 18th century initially in the role of private enforcers hired to protect the property of landowners and merchants from the groups ofbriganti who frequently pillaged the countryside and towns. The battle against the Mafia made by the Kingdom of Italy was controversial and ambiguous. TheCarabinieri (the military police of Italy) and sometimes theRoyal Italian Army were often involved in fights against the mafia members, but their efforts were frequently useless because of the weakness of the Italian judicial system and cooperation between the mafia and local governments.[87]
In the 1920s, theFascist regime began taking stronger military action, led byCesare Mori (nicknamed the "IronPrefect" for his iron-fisted campaigns), against the Sicilian Mafia, the first that ended with considerable success.[83] There was anAllied invasion of Sicily during World War II starting on 10 July 1943. In preparation for the invasion, the Alliesrevitalised the Mafia to aid them. The invasion of Sicily contributed to the25 July crisis; in general, the Allied victors were warmly embraced by Sicily.[89]
In the aftermath of World War II, Italybecame a Republic in 1946. Under theConstitution of Italy, Sicily is one of fiveregions withautonomy.[90] Both the partial Italianland reform and special funding from the Italian government'sCassa per il Mezzogiorno (Fund for the South) from 1950 to 1984 helped the Sicilian economy. During this period, the economic and social condition of the island was generally improved due to investments in infrastructure (such asmotorways andairports) and the creation of industrial and commercial areas.[91] In the 1980s, the Mafia was weakened by another campaign led by magistratesGiovanni Falcone andPaolo Borsellino.[92] Between 1990 and 2005, theunemployment rate fell from about 23% to 11%.[93][94]
The Cosa Nostra has traditionally been the most powerful group in Sicily, especially around Palermo.[95] A police investigation in summer 2019 also confirmed strong links between the Palermo areaSicilian Mafia and American organized crime, particularly theGambino crime family.[96] According toLa Repubblica, "Off they go, through the streets of Passo di Rigano, Boccadifalco, Torretta and at the same time, Brooklyn, Staten Island, [and] New Jersey. Because from Sicily to the US, the old mafia has returned."[97]
As of 2024, 4.75 million people live in Sicily, making it thefourth most populated region in Italy. In the first century after theItalian unification, Sicily had one of the most negativenet migration rates among the regions of Italy because of the emigration of millions of people to Northern Italy, other European countries, North America, South America and Australia. Like the South of Italy and Sardinia, immigration to the island is very low compared to other regions of Italy because workers tend to head toNorthern Italy instead, due to better employment and industrial opportunities. According toISTAT figures from 2017,[98] show around 175,000 immigrants out of the total 5,029,615 population;[99]Romanians with more than 50,000 make up the most immigrants, followed byTunisians,Moroccans,Sri Lankans,Albanians, and others mostly from Eastern Europe.[failed verification] As of 31 December 2020, there were 186,195 foreigners resident in the region.[100]As in the rest of Italy, the official language is Italian and the primary religion isRoman Catholicism.[101][102]
Sicilian emigration started shortly after theItalian unification and has not stopped ever since.
The aforementioned factors, along with a failed land reform, resulted in a never-before-seen wave of Sicilians emigrating, first to theUnited States between the 1880s and the 1920s, later to Northern Italy, and from the 1960s onwards also toBelgium,France,Germany,Switzerland, as well asAustralia andSouth America.
Today, Sicily is the Italian region with the highest number ofexpatriates: as of 2017, 750,000 Sicilians, 14.4% of the island's population, lived abroad.[103] The trend of young Sicilians leaving the island in search of employment elsewhere in Italy and abroad continues in early 21st century.[104] Today, an estimated 10 million people of Sicilian origin live around the world.
As in most Italian regions,Roman Catholicism is the predominant religious denomination in Sicily, and the church still plays an important role in the lives of most people. There is also a notable small minority of Eastern-riteByzantine Catholics which has a mixed congregation of ethnicAlbanians; it is operated by theItalo-Albanian Catholic Church. Most people still attend church weekly or at least for religious festivals, and many people get married in churches. There was a wide presence of Jews in Sicily for at least 1,400 years and possibly for more than 2,000 years. Some scholars believe that the Sicilian Jewry are partial ancestors of theAshkenazi Jews.[106] However, much of the Jewish community faded away when they wereexpelled from the island in 1492.Islam was present during theEmirate of Sicily, although Muslims were also expelled. Today, mostly due to immigration to the island, there are also several religious minorities, such as Jehovah's Witnesses,Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, andSikhism. There are also a someEvangelical Christians who live on the island. As of 2020, there are approximately 4,989,921 Roman Catholics in Sicily constituting about 99.2% of the island's population. Additionally there are also about 23,120 members of theItalo-Albanian Catholic Church also living in Sicily constituting roughly 0.5% of the population.[107]
Traditionally, Sicily votes for centre-right parties during elections.[108] From 1943 to 1951, there was also aseparatist political party calledSicilian Independence Movement (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano, MIS). Their most successful result was at the1946 general election, when MIS obtained 0.7% of national votes (8.8% of votes in Sicily), and four seats. However, the movement lost all their seats following the1948 general election and the 1951 regional election. Even though it has never been formally disbanded, today the movement is no longer part of thepolitics of Sicily. AfterWorld War II, Sicily became a stronghold of theChristian Democracy. Sicily is now governed by a centre-right coalition.Renato Schifani is the current President and has served since 2022.
Administratively, Sicily is divided into nine provinces, each with a capital city of the same name as the province. Small surrounding islands are also part of various Sicilian provinces: theAeolian Islands (Messina), isle ofUstica (Palermo),Aegadian Islands (Trapani), isle ofPantelleria (Trapani) andPelagian Islands (Agrigento).
Thanks to regular growth in recent years,[when?] Sicily is the eighth largest regional economy of Italy in terms of total GDP (seeList of Italian regions by GDP). A series of reforms and investments in agriculture, such as the introduction of modern irrigation systems, has made this important industry competitive.[110] In the 1970s, some factories were opened, resulting in growth in theindustrial sector.[111] In recent years theservice industry has become more important due to the opening of several shopping malls and some modest growth in financial and telecommunication activities.[112] Tourism is an important source of income for the island, which attracts visitors due to its rich natural and historical heritage. Today Sicily is investing a large amount of money into the development of itshospitality industry, to attract even more tourism.[113] However, Sicily continues to have a GDP per capita below the Italian average, and higher unemployment than the rest of Italy.[114]
Highways have been built and expanded in the last four decades. The most prominent Sicilian roads are the motorways (known asautostrade) in the north of the island. Much of the motorway network is elevated on pillars due to the island's mountainous terrain.[133][134][135][136] Other main roads in Sicily are theStrade Statali, such as the SS.113 that connectsTrapani to Messina (via Palermo), the SS.114 Messina-Syracuse (via Catania) and the SS.115 Syracuse-Trapani (viaRagusa,Gela andAgrigento).
The first railway in Sicily was opened in 1863 (Palermo-Bagheria) and today all of the Sicilian provinces are served by a network of railway services, linking to most major cities and towns; this service is operated byTrenitalia. Of the 1,378 km (856 mi) of railway tracks in use, over 60% has beenelectrified whilst the remaining 583 km (362 mi) are serviced bydiesel engines. 88% of the lines (1.209 km) are single-track and only 169 km (105 mi) are double-track serving the two main routes, Messina-Palermo (Tyrrhenian) and Messina-Catania-Syracuse (Ionian), which are the main lines of this region. Of thenarrow-gauge railways theFerrovia Circumetnea is the only one that still operates, going roundMount Etna. From the major cities of Sicily, there are services toNaples,Rome andMilan; this is achieved by the trains being loaded ontoferries which cross the Strait.[137]
Sicily has several airports that serve numerous Italian and European destinations and some extra-European.
Catania-Fontanarossa Airport, located on the east coast, is the busiest on the island (and one of the busiest in all of Italy).
Palermo International Airport, which is also a substantially large airport with many national and international flights.
Trapani-Birgi Airport, a military-civil joint-use airport (third for traffic on the island). Recently the airport has seen an increase in traffic thanks to the low-cost carrierRyanair.
Comiso-Ragusa Airport, has recently been refurbished and re-converted from military use to a civil airport. It was opened to commercial traffic and general aviation on 30 May 2013.
International connections: From Palermo and Trapani there are weekly services toTunisia and there is also a daily service betweenMalta andPozzallo.[138][139]
Commercial and cargo ports: The port ofAugusta is the fifth-largest cargo port in Italy and handles tonnes of goods. Other major cargo ports are Palermo, Catania, Trapani,Pozzallo andTermini Imerese.
Touristic ports: Several ports along the Sicilian coast are in the service of private boats that need to moor on the island. The main ports for this traffic are inMarina di Ragusa,Riposto,Portorosa,Syracuse,Cefalù andSciacca. In Sicily, Palermo is also a major centre for boat rental, with or without crew, in the Mediterranean.
Plans for a bridge linking Sicily to the mainland have been discussed since 1865. Throughout the last decade, plans were developed for a road and rail link to the mainland via what would be the world's longestsuspension bridge, theStrait of Messina Bridge. Planning for the project has experienced several false starts over the past few decades. On 6 March 2009,Silvio Berlusconi's government declared that the construction works for the Messina Bridge would begin on 23 December 2009, and announced a pledge of €1.3 billion as a contribution to the bridge's total cost, estimated at €6.1 billion.[140] The plan has been criticized by environmental associations and some local Sicilians and Calabrians, concerned with its environmental impact, economic sustainability and even possible infiltrations by organized crime.[141][142]
Sicily's sunny, dry climate, scenery, cuisine, history, and architecture attract many tourists from the rest of Italy and abroad. The tourist season peaks in the summer months, although people visit the island all year round.Mount Etna, the beaches, the archaeological sites, and major cities such asPalermo,Catania,Syracuse andRagusa are the favourite tourist destinations, but the old town ofTaormina and the neighbouring seaside resort ofGiardini Naxos draw visitors from all over the world, as do theAeolian Islands,Erice,Terrasini,Castellammare del Golfo,Cefalù,Agrigento, thePelagie Islands andCapo d'Orlando. The last features some of the best-preserved temples of the ancient Greek period. Many Mediterranean cruise ships stop in Sicily, and many wine tourists also visit the island.
Some scenes of several Hollywood andCinecittà films were shot in Sicily. This increased the attraction of Sicily as a tourist destination.[143]
Valle dei Templi (1997) is one of the most outstanding examples ofMagna Graecia art and architecture, and is one of the main attractions of Sicily as well as a national monument of Italy. The site is located inAgrigento.[144]
Villa Romana del Casale (1997) is aRoman villa built in the first quarter of the 4th century and located about 3 km (2 mi) outside the town ofPiazza Armerina. It contains the richest, largest and most complex collection of Roman mosaics in the world.[145]
Necropolis of Pantalica (2005) is a largeNecropolis in Sicily with over 5,000 tombs dating from the 13th to the 7th centuries BC.Syracuse is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres and architecture. They are situated in south-eastern Sicily.
Mount Etna (2013) is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of activity and generated myths, legends and naturalistic observation from Greek, Celts and Roman classic and medieval times.[148]
Arab-NormanPalermo and the cathedral churches ofCefalù andMonreale; includes a series of nine civil and religious structures dating from the era of the Norman kingdom of Sicily (1130–1194)[149]
Because many different cultures settled, dominated or invaded the island, Sicily has a huge variety ofarchaeological sites. Also, some of the most notable and best preserved temples and other structures of the Greek world are located in Sicily.[154] Here is a short list of the major archaeological sites:
The Coastal towers in Sicily (Torri costiere della Sicilia) are 218 oldwatchtowers along the coast. In Sicily, the first coastal towers date back to the late Norman period. From 1360 the threat came from the south, fromNorth Africa toMaghreb, mainly toBarbary pirates and corsairs ofBarbary Coast. In 1516, the Turks settled inAlgiers, and from 1520, the corsairHayreddin Barbarossa under the command ofOttoman Empire, operated from that harbour.
Most existing towers were built on architectural designs of the Florentine architectCamillo Camilliani from [1583] to 1584 and involved the coastal periple of Sicily. The typology changed completely in '800, because of the new higher fire volumes of cannon vessels, the towers were built on the type ofMartello towers that the British built in the UK and elsewhere in the British Empire. The decline of Mediterranean piracy caused by theSecond Barbary War led to a smaller number of coastal towers built during the 19th century.[155]
Sicily has many small and picturesque villages; 24 of them have been selected byI Borghi più belli d'Italia (English:The most beautiful Villages of Italy),[156] a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest,[157] that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.[158]
Sicily has long been associated withthe arts; many poets, writers,philosophers, intellectuals, architects and painters have roots on the island. Among the earliest illuminaries there areGorgias andEmpedocles, two highly noted Sicilian-Greek philosophers, while the Syracusan-GreekEpicharmus is held to be the inventor of comedy.[160][161] One of the most famous intellectuals in Greek antiquity wasArchimedes, aSyracuse native who is recognized as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.[162]
TheSicilian Baroque has a unique architectural identity.Noto,Caltagirone,Catania,Ragusa,Modica,Scicli and particularlyAcireale contain some of Italy's best examples ofBaroque architecture, carved in the local redsandstone. Noto provides one of the best examples of the Baroque architecture brought to Sicily. The Baroque style in Sicily was largely confined to buildings erected by the church, andpalazzi built as private residences for the Sicilian aristocracy.[165] The earliest examples of this style in Sicily lacked individuality and were typically heavy-handed pastiches of buildings seen by Sicilian visitors to Rome,Florence, andNaples. However, even at this early stage, provincial architects had begun to incorporate certain vernacular features of Sicily's older architecture. By the middle of the 18th century, when Sicily's Baroque architecture was noticeably different from that of the mainland, it has a unique freedom of design that is difficult to characterize in words.
Sicilian was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices ofFrederick II and his court of notaries, orMagna Curia, which, headed byGiacomo da Lentini, also gave birth to theSicilian School, widely inspired bytroubadour literature. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the literary Florentine dialect use byDante Alighieri, the father of modern Italian. Dante, in hisDe vulgari eloquentia, claims that "In effect, this vernacular seems to deserve higher praise than the others since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian".[172] It is in this language that appeared the firstsonnet, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.
Other languages are spoken in Sicily. Within theprovince of Palermo, four towns are home to speakers ofArbëresh varieties.[173] Arbëresh is the name given to varieties ofAlbanian spoken in Italy. In the eastern part of the island, there areGallo-Italic varieties known asGallo-Italic of Sicily,[174][175] which are related to the other Gallo-Italic languages spoken in most of northern Italy and in other isolated pockets of southern Italy.
TheUniversity of Catania dates back to 1434 and it is the oldest university in Sicily. It currently hosts 12 faculties and over 62,000 students and it offers undergraduate and postgraduate programs.Catania hosts also theScuola Superiore, anacademic institution linked to the University of Catania, aiming for excellence in education.[184]
TheUniversity of Palermo is the island's second-oldest university. It was officially founded in 1806, although historical records indicate that medicine and law have been taught there since the late 15th century. TheOrto botanico di Palermo (Palermo botanical gardens) is home to the university's Department of Botany and is also open to visitors.
Cannoli, a popular pastry associated with Sicilian cuisineArancini, rice balls fried in breadcrumbs
The island has a long history of producing a variety of noted cuisines and wines, to the extent that Sicily is sometimes nicknamedGod's Kitchen because of this.[185] Every part of Sicily has its speciality (e.g. Cassata is typical of Palermo although available everywhere in Sicily, as is Granita). The ingredients are typically rich in taste while remaining affordable to the general public.[186] The savoury dishes of Sicily are viewed to behealthy, using fresh vegetables and fruits, such as tomatoes,artichokes,olives (includingolive oil),citrus,apricots,aubergines, onions,beans,raisins commonly coupled with seafood, freshly caught from the surrounding coastlines, includingtuna,sea bream,sea bass,cuttlefish,swordfish,sardines, and others.[187]
Like the cuisine of the rest of southern Italy, pasta plays an important part in Sicilian cuisine, as does rice; for example witharancini.[189] As well as using some other cheeses, Sicily has spawned some of its own, using both cow's and sheep's milk, such aspecorino andcaciocavallo.[190] Spices used includesaffron,nutmeg,clove,pepper, andcinnamon, which were introduced by the Arabs.Parsley is used abundantly in many dishes. Although Sicilian cuisine is commonly associated with sea food, meat dishes, includinggoose,lamb, goat, rabbit, andturkey, are also found in Sicily. It was theNormans andSwabians who first introduced a fondness for meat dishes to the island.[191] Some varieties of wine are produced from vines that are relatively unique to the island, such as theNero d'Avola made near the baroque town ofNoto.[192]
The most popular sport in Sicily isfootball, which came to the fore in the late 19th century under the influence of the English. Some of the oldest football clubs in Italy are from Sicily: the three most successful arePalermo,Catania, andMessina, which have played 29, 17 and 5 seasons in theSerie A respectively. No club from Sicily has ever won Serie A, but football is still deeply embedded in local culture and all over Sicily most towns have a representative team.[193]
Although football is the most popular sport in Sicily, the island also has participants in other fields.Amatori Catania have competed in the top Italian nationalrugby union league calledNational Championship of Excellence. They have even participated at the European level in theEuropean Challenge Cup. Competing in the basketball variation ofSerie A isOrlandina Basket fromCapo d'Orlando in theprovince of Messina, where the sport has a reasonable following. Various other sports that are played to some extent include volleyball,handball, andwater polo. Previously, inmotorsport, Sicily held the prominentTarga Florio sports car race that took place in the Madonie Mountains, with the start-finish line inCerda.[194] The event was started in 1906 by Sicilian industrialist and automobile enthusiastVincenzo Florio, and ran until it was canceled due to safety concerns in 1977.[194]
From 28 September to 9 October 2005Trapani was the location of Acts 8 and 9 of theLouis Vuitton Cup. This sailing race featured, among other entrants, all boats that took part in the 2007America's Cup.
Each town and city has its own patron saint, and thefeast days are marked by colourful processions through the streets with marching bands and displays of fireworks.
Sicilian religious festivals also include thepresepe vivente (livingnativity scene), which takes place at Christmas time. Deftly combining religion and folklore, it is a constructed mock 19th-century Sicilian village, complete with a nativity scene, and has people of all ages dressed in the costumes of the period, some impersonating the Holy Family, and others working as artisans of their particular assigned trade. It is normally concluded onEpiphany, often highlighted by the arrival of themagi on horseback.
Oral tradition plays a large role in Sicilian folklore. Many stories passed down from generation to generation involve a character named "Giufà". Anecdotes from this character's life preserve Sicilian culture as well as convey moral messages.
Sicilians also enjoy outdoor festivals, held in the local square orpiazza where live music and dancing are performed on stage, and food fairs orsagre are set up in booths lining the square. These offer various local specialties, as well as typical Sicilian food. Normally these events are concluded with fireworks. A notedsagra is theSagra del Carciofo orArtichoke Festival, which is held annually inRamacca in April. The most important traditional event in Sicily is thecarnival. Famous carnivals are inAcireale,Misterbianco,Regalbuto,Paternò,Sciacca,Termini Imerese.
TheOpera dei Pupi (Opera of the Puppets;Sicilian: Òpira dî pupi) is amarionette theatrical representation of Frankish romantic poems such as theSong of Roland orOrlando furioso that is one of the characteristic cultural traditions of Sicily. The sides of donkey carts are decorated with intricate, painted scenes; these same tales are enacted in traditionalpuppet theatres featuring hand-made marionettes of wood. The opera of the puppets and the Sicilian tradition ofcantastorî (singers of tales) are rooted in the Provençaltroubadour tradition in Sicily during the reign ofFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the first half of the 13th century. A great place to see this marionette art is the puppet theatres ofPalermo. The Sicilian marionette theatre Opera dei Pupi was proclaimed in 2001 and inscribed in 2008 in theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[195]
Today, there are only a few troupes that maintain the tradition. They often perform for tourists. However, there are no longer the great historical families of marionettists, such as the Greco ofPalermo; theCanino ofPartinico andAlcamo; Crimi, Trombetta and Napoli ofCatania, Pennisi and Macri ofAcireale, Profeta ofLicata, Gargano and Grasso ofAgrigento. One can, however, admire the richest collection of marionettes at the Museo Internazionale delle Marionette Antonio Pasqualino and at theMuseo Etnografico Siciliano Giuseppe Pitrè in Palermo. Other elaborate marionettes are on display at the Museo Civico Vagliasindi inRandazzo.
Sicilianarrotino at a livingnativity scene wearing traditional Sicilian clothing
TheSicilian cart is an ornate, colourful style of a horse- or donkey-drawn cart native to Sicily. Sicilian woodcarverGeorge Petralia states that horses were mostly used in the city and flat plains, while donkeys or mules were more often used in rough terrain for hauling heavy loads.[196] The cart has two wheels and is primarily handmade out of wood with iron components.
The Siciliancoppola is a traditional kind offlat cap typically worn by men in Sicily. First used by English nobles during the late 18th century, thetascu began being used in Sicily in the early 20th century as adriving cap, usually worn by car drivers. Thecoppola is usually made intweed. Today it is widely regarded as a definitive symbol of Sicilian heritage.[197]
TheFlag of Sicily, regarded as a regional icon, was first adopted in 1282, after theSicilian Vespers ofPalermo.[198] It is characterised by the presence of thetriskeles in the middle, depicting the head ofMedusa and three wheat ears representing the extreme fertility of the land of Sicily. In early mythology, when Medusa was slain and beheaded by Perseus, the Medusa head was placed in the centre of Athena's shield.[199]
Palermo and Corleone were the first two cities to found a confederation against theAngevin rule. The triskeles symbol came to be on the Sicilian flag in 1943 duringWorld War II whenAndrea Finocchiaro Aprile led an independence movement, in collaboration with the allies. Their plan was to help Sicily become independent and form a free republic. The colours, likewise introduced in the 1940s, respectively represent the cities ofPalermo andCorleone. The separatist behind the movement used a yellow and red flag with the Trinacria in the centre of it. WhenWorld War II ended, Sicily was recognized as an autonomous region in the Italian Republic.
The flag became the official public flag of theRegione Siciliana in January 2000, after the passing of an apposite regional law which advocates its use on public buildings, schools and city halls along with the nationalItalian flag and theEuropean one.
Familiar as an ancient symbol of the region, theTriskelion is also featured on Greek coins ofSyracuse, such as coins ofAgathocles (317–289 BC).The symbol dates back to when Sicily was part ofMagna Graecia, the colonial extension ofGreece beyond theAegean.[200] The triskelion was revived, as aneoclassic – and non-Bourbon – emblem for the new Napoleonic Kingdom of theTwo Sicilies, byJoachim Murat in 1808. In the case of Sicily, the triskelion symbol is said to represent the threecapes (headlands orpromontories of the island of Sicily, namely:Pelorus (Peloro, Tip of Faro, Messina: North-East);Pachynus (Passero, Syracuse: South); andLilybæum (Lilibeo, Cape Boeo, Marsala: West), which form three points of a triangle.[201]
^Davis-Secord, Sarah (2017). "Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean".Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 79.ISBN9781501704642.JSTOR10.7591/j.ctt1qv5qfp.
^ab"Syracuse, Sicily". TravelMapofSicily.com. 7 October 2007. Archived fromthe original on 6 June 2008. Retrieved4 December 2007.
^Johns, Jeremy (2002).Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan. Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 249–250.ISBN978-0-521-81692-2.
^Takayama, Hiroshi (1993).The Administration of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. p. 123.ISBN978-90-04-09920-3.
^abLoud, G. A. (2007).The Latin Church in Norman Italy. Cambridge University Press. p. 494.ISBN978-0-521-25551-6.ISBN0-521-25551-1" "At the end of the twelfth-century ... While in Apulia Greeks were in a majority – and indeed present in any numbers at all – only in the Salento peninsula in the extreme south, at the time of the conquest they had an overwhelming preponderance in Lucaina and central and southern Calabria, as well as comprising anything up to a third of the population of Sicily, concentrated especially in the north-east of the island, the Val Demone.
^"Palazzo" (pl.palazzi): is any large building in a town, state or private (often much smaller than the termpalace implies in theEnglish-speaking world). Whilepalazzo is the technically correct appellation and postal address, no Sicilian aristocrat would ever use the word, instead referring to his or her own house, however large, as "casa". "Palazzo" followed by the family name was the term used by officials, tradesmen, and delivery men. Gefen, p. 15.
^Nasse, George Nicholas (1964).The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy. Washington, D. C.: National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council. p. 19.
^Radicini, Ninni. "The Trinacria: History and Mythology | The Symbol of the Hellenic Nature of Sicily | Article by Ninni Radicini." The Trinacria: History and Mythology | The Symbol of the Hellenic Nature of Sicily | Article by Ninni Radicini. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 November 2014.
Bonacini, Elisa (2007).Il territorio calatino nella Sicilia imperiale e tardoromana (in Italian and English). Archaeopress, Oxford, England.ISBN978-1-4073-0136-5.
Chaney, Edward (2000).British and American Travellers in Sicily from the eighth to the twentieth century. The Evolution of the Grand Tour. Routledge.
Zuppardo, Emanuele; Piccolo, Salvatore:Terra Mater, Sulle Sponde del Gela greco, Betania Editions 2005. CIP-Biblioteca Centrale della Regione Siciliana "Alberto Bombace" 937.8 CDD-20. Library locations: British Library/London (UK) - University of Bristol Library (UK) - University of Manchester Library (UK) - Landsbókasafn Íslands/Reykjavík (IS) - Library of Congress/Washington D.C. - Yale University Library/New Haven (CT) - New York University Library (NY).
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