Shugendō (修験道,lit. 'the "Way [of] Trial [and] Practice", the "Way ofShugen, orGen-practice"')[1] is asyncretic Esoteric Buddhist religion, a body ofascetic practices that originated in theNara Period ofJapan having evolved during the 7th century from an amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn primarily fromEsoteric Buddhism, localfolk-religious practices,Shinto,mountain worship, andTaoism. The final purpose ofShugendō is for practitioners to find supernatural power and save themselves and the masses by conducting religious training while treading through steep mountain ranges. Practitioners are calledShugenja (修験者) orYamabushi (山伏,lit. '"Mountain Prostrator"').[2] The mountains whereShugendō is practiced are all over Japan, and can span multiple mountains within one range such as the Ōmine mountain range withMount Hakkyō andMount Ōmine or theIshizuchisan mountain range withKamegamori and Tengudake.
TheShugendō worldview includes a large pantheon of deities (which include Buddhist and Shinto figures). Some of the most important figures are thetantric Buddhist figures ofFudō Myōō andDainichi Nyorai.[3] Other key figures areGongen (権現), which are considered to be manifestations of Buddhas sometimes as Japanesekami.Zaō Gongen (蔵王権現) is one of the most important gongen inShugendō.[4][5]
Shugendō evolved during the seventh century from an amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn from local folk-religious practices, Shinto mountain worship and Buddhism.[4][6] The seventh-century ascetic and mysticEn no Gyōja is widely considered as the patriarch ofShugendō, having first organizedShugendō as a doctrine.Shugendō literally means "the path of training and testing" or "the way to spiritual power through discipline."[7][8] SomeShugendō practitioners were said to be descendants of theKōya Hijiri monks of the eighth and ninth centuries.[9]
From the ninth century, elements ofVajrayana Buddhism such asShingon andTendai Buddhism were taken intoShugendō and it developed further.[4] In the Heian period, it became very popular among the nobles living inKyoto to visitKumano Sanzan (three major shrines,Kumano Hongū Taisha,Kumano Hayatama Taisha andKumano Nachi Taisha), which was the common holy place ofShugendō, Shinto and Buddhism.[10]
TheMeiji government, whicherected a barrier between Shinto andBuddhism, ruled thatShugendō was unacceptable because of its amalgamation of the two religions, and officially forbade it in 1872. With the advent ofreligious freedom in Japan afterWorld War II,Shugendō was revived.[1]
In 1907,Yoshitaro Shibasaki [ja] and his team successfully climbedMount Tsurugi, which was regarded as the last unclimbed mountain in Japan. However, they found a metal cane decoration and a sword on the top of the mountain, and it turned out that someone had reached the top before them. A later scientific investigation revealed that the metal cane decoration and sword dated from the late Nara period to the early Heian period and thatshugenja had climbed Mount Tsurugi more than 1,000 years ago.[11]
The Ōmine mountain range, which stretches 100 km from north to south and connectsYoshino andKumano, was historically the biggest practice place ofShugendō. The highest peak of the Ōmine mountain range isMount Hakkyō at an altitude of 1915 m, and there are 75 places for ascetic practices along the mountain trail, andŌminesan-ji Temple at the top ofMount Ōmine at an altitude of 1719 m is considered to be the highest sacred site ofShugendō. At present, the Ōmine mountain range is designated as aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site "Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range" andYoshino-Kumano National Park.[4][5]
In modern times,Shugendō is practiced mainly throughShingon andTendai temples.
According to Miyake Hitoshi,Shugendō rituals include "festivals, fortunetelling, divination, prayers and incantations, exorcism, spells, charms and so forth."[3] Hitoshi describes the main worldview which informsShugendō praxis as one which:
assumes the existence of at least two realms of existence, that of the daily lives of human beings, and a separate, supernatural spiritual realm behind, and which controls that of the daily lives of human beings. The mountains are seen either as a sacred space which is part of both of these worlds, or is seen to actually be a part of the spiritual world. The altar space during the fire ceremony, or the area of a matsuri, is also considered to be this kind of sacred space.[3]
Thetantric Buddhist deityFudō Myōō (Sanskrit:Acala, "Immovable") plays a central role in theShugendō cosmology practice.[3] Another important Buddha isDainichi Nyorai (大日如来，Mahavairocana).[3] TheShugendō pantheon also includes numerous other Buddhist, Shinto and local religious figures.[3]
The most importantShugendō practices are "practices in the mountains" (入峰修行,nyūbu shugyō).[3] InShugendō, sacred mountains are seen as a supernatural home of numerous deities and as a symbol of the entire universe. According to Hitoshi, "the central element which forms both of these rituals is the symbolic action exhibited in a state of identification with the central deity Fudō Myōō."[3] The main source of the shugenja's spiritual power generally understood to be Fudō Myōō and a shugenja gains the ability to use Fudō Myōō's power through mountain practices.[3]
There are three main forms of mountain practice according to Miyake Hitoshi:[3]
Shugendō esoteric initiations are calledshōkanjō (正灌頂) and are unique toShugendō tradition (but are based on Vajrayana Buddhistabhiseka ceremonies).[3]
Another importantShugendō practice is the demonstration of magical and spiritual powers (genjutsu, 験 術). Such displays may include fire walking, walking on swords, and entering boiling water.[3]
Yet another important religious practice inShugendō is various rites or rituals of worship (供養法,kuyōhō) which includes making offerings toShugendō deities (such as Fudō Myōō andZaō Gongen) as well as the chanting of sutras.[3]
Shugendō practitioners also take part inShinto festivals (matsuri, 祭) and make offerings tokami.[3]
Other practices which are part ofShugendō include the following:[3]
Shugendō ritualists also practice different rituals, prayers and ceremonies associated with particular deities (shosonbō, 諸尊法) including the buddhasYakushi andAmida, the bodhisattvasMonju,Kokuzo andKannon as well as Indian deities likeBenzai-ten and Japanese Kami likeInari, andDaikoku.[3]
The following are notable sites associated withShugendō, many of which serve as popular pilgrimage destinations.[12]
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