Acoast – also called thecoastline,shoreline, orseashore – is theland next to thesea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and theocean or alake.[1][2] Coasts are influenced by thetopography of the surrounding landscape, as well as by water inducederosion, such aswaves. Thegeological composition ofrock andsoil dictates the type of shore that is created.Earth contains roughly 620,000 km (390,000 mi) of coastline.
Inphysical oceanography, a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, while thebeach is at the edge of the shore, representing theintertidal zone where there is one.[5] Alongtropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water,coral reefs can often be found between depths of 1–50 m (3.3–164.0 ft).
According to an atlas prepared by theUnited Nations, about 44% of thehuman population lives within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea as of 2013[update].[6] Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide manyecosystem services to humankind. For example, important human activities happen inport cities. Coastalfisheries (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) andaquaculture are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, andprotein for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces likebeaches andseaside resorts generate large revenues throughtourism.
Since coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exactperimeter cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called thecoastline paradox. The termcoastal zone is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur.[10] Both the termscoast andcoastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand'sWest Coast, or theEast,West, andGulf Coast of theUnited States.) Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are calledpelagiccoast, while other coasts are more sheltered coast in agulf orbay. Ashore, on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore).
TheEarth has approximately 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats, which extend to the margins of thecontinental shelves, make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans,[12] but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle.[13] As of October 2010,[update] about 2.86% ofexclusive economic zones were part ofmarine protected areas.[14]
The definition of coasts varies. Marine scientists think of the "wet" (aquatic orintertidal) vegetated habitats as beingcoastal ecosystems (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.) whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to the seashore (see alsoestuaries and coastal ecosystems).
While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according tojurisdiction.[citation needed][15] Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons.
The measured length of the coastline depends on the method used to measure it and the degree ofcartographic generalization. Since a landmass has features at all scales, from hundreds of kilometers in size to tiny fractions of a millimeter and below, there is no obvious size of the smallest feature that should be taken into consideration when measuring, and hence no single well-defined perimeter to the landmass.Various approximations exist when specific assumptions are made about minimum feature size.
Atlantic rocky coastline, showing a surf area.Porto Covo, west coast of PortugalSeaside inBudelli, Italy. Budelli beach is famous for the color of its sand, which is pink due to the presence of fragments of a microorganism calledMiniacina miniacea.[21]
Tides often determine the range over whichsediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however,tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up the riverestuaries from the ocean.[22]: 421
Geologists classify coasts on the basis oftidal range intomacrotidal coasts with a tidal range greater than 4 m (13 ft);mesotidal coasts with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13 ft); andmicrotidal coasts with a tidal range of less than 2 m (7 ft). The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts is more important. Macrotidal coasts lackbarrier islands andlagoons, and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents. Wave action is much more important for determiningbedforms of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts.[23]
Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms anabrasion orcliffed coast.
Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries.[24] Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland. Coral reefs are a provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands.[25]
Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. TheEarth's natural processes, particularlysea level rises, waves and variousweather phenomena, have resulted in theerosion,accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation ofcontinental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias).
The Coastal Hazard Wheel system published by UNEP for global coastal management
More and more of the world's people live in coastal regions.[26] According to aUnited Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.[6] Many major cities are on or near goodharbors and haveport facilities. Somelandlocked places have achieved port status by buildingcanals.
Nations defend their coasts against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixedcoastal defenses have long been erected in many nations, and coastal countries typically have anavy and some form ofcoast guard.
Growth management andcoastal management can be a challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents, and poor management practices of construction often leave these communities and infrastructure vulnerable to processes likecoastal erosion andsea level rise. In many of these communities, management practices such asbeach nourishment or when the coastal infrastructure is no longer financially sustainable,managed retreat to remove communities from the coast.
A passenger car ferry arrives at the coast ofMariehamn,Åland.
Coasts and their adjacent areas on and offshore are an important part of a local ecosystem. The mixture of fresh water andsalt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients formarine life.Salt marshes,mangroves andbeaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to thefood chain. The high level ofbiodiversity creates a high level of biological activity, which has attracted human activity for thousands of years. Coasts also create essential material for organisms to live by, including estuaries,wetland,seagrass,coral reefs, and mangroves. Coasts provide habitats formigratory birds, sea turtles, marine mammals, and coral reefs.[29]
According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastallandforms, which are above the high tide mark, such asraised beaches. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, localsubsidence, orisostatic rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such asrias (drowned valleys) andfjords
According to the second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varyingresistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks areeroded by the oceanwaves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creatinginlets orbay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining asheadlands oroutcroppings.
Parts of a coastline can be categorised as high energy coast or low energy coast. The distinguishing characteristics of a high energy coast are that the average wave energy is relatively high so that erosion of small grained material tends to exceed deposition, and consequently landforms like cliffs, headlands and wave-cut terraces develop.[30] Low energy coasts are generally sheltered from waves, or in regions where the average wind wave and swell conditions are relatively mild. Low energy coasts typically change slowly, and tend to be depositional environments.[31]
High energy coasts are exposed to the direct impact of waves and storms, and are generally erosional environments.[31] High energy storm events can make large changes to a coastline, and can move significant amounts of sediment over a short period, sometimes changing a shoreline configuration.[32]
Swash is the shoreward flow after the break, backwash is the water flow back down the beach. The relative strength of flow in the swash and backwash determines what size grains are deposited or eroded. This is dependent on how the wave breaks and the slope of the shore.[33]Depending on the form of the breaking wave, its energy can carry granular material up the beach and deposit it, or erode it by carrying more material down the slope than up it. Steep waves that are close together and break with the surfplunging down onto the shore slope expend much of their energy lifting the sediment. The weak swash does not carry it far up the slope, and the strong backwash carries it further down the slope, where it either settles in deeper water or is carried along the shore by a longshore current induced by an angled approach of the wave-front to the shore. These waves which erode the beach are called destructive waves.[34]Low waves that are further apart and break byspilling, expend more of their energy in the swash which carries particles up the beach, leaving less energy for the backwash to transport them downslope, with a net constrictive influence on the beach.[34]
Riviera is an Italian word for "shoreline",[35][36][37] ultimately derived from Latinripa ("riverbank"). It came to be applied as a proper name to the coast of theLigurian Sea, in the formriviera ligure, then shortened toriviera. Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south ofGenoa, north and west into what is nowFrench territory pastMonaco and sometimes as far asMarseille.[35][38][39] Today, this coast is divided into theItalian Riviera and theFrench Riviera, although the French use the term "Riviera" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the "Côte d'Azur".[36]
As a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists.[35] Such places using the term include theAustralian Riviera inQueensland and theTurkish Riviera along theAegean Sea.[36]
Acliffed coast or abrasion coast is one where marine action has produced steep declivities known ascliffs.
Aflat coast is one where the land gradually descends into the sea.
Agraded shoreline is one where wind and water action has produced a flat and straight coastline.
Aprimary coast isone which is mainly undergoing early stage development by major long-term processes such as tectonism and climate change Asecondary coast is one where the primary processes have mostly stabilised, and more localised processes have become prominent.[31]
The following articles describe some coastal landforms:
Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as abay would, in certain (mainly southern) parts ofBritain, be called acove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay.
Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surroundingcliff, or bluff.Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate than a cliff made of bedrock.[24]
Anatural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves.
Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave.
Astack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action or an arch collapses leaving an offshore remnant.
Astump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability.
Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves.
Awave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further offshore.[24][clarification needed]
Overview of different zones of coastal waters: Input, production, transport and storage pathway of carbon in marine waters, including movement across maritime zones of national jurisdiction:territorial sea,Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ),continental shelf,high seas (international waters), anddeep seabed.
"Coastal waters" (or "coastal seas") is a term that carries different meanings depending upon the context, ranging from a geographic reference to the waters within a few kilometers of the coast, to describing the entirecontinental shelf that may stretch for more than a hundred kilometers from land.[40] The term is used in a different manner when describing legal and economic boundaries, such asterritorial waters[41] andinternational waters,[42] or when describing the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf (marine coastal ecosystems).
The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of the whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant. The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region.[43] The term "coastal waters" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts. InEuropean Union environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles[44] while in the United States theUS EPA considers this region to extend much further offshore.[45][46]
Similarly, the termlittoral zone has no single definition. It is the part of asea,lake, orriver that is close to theshore.[47] In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from thehigh water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanentlysubmerged.
The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshorefacies) is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents (paleogeography). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past.[51]
Sediments deposited in theshoreface are preserved as lenses ofsandstone in which the upper part of the sandstone is coarser than the lower part (acoarsening upwards sequence). Geologists refer to these areparasequences. Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often showlaminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles.[51]
Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of theWestern Interior Seaway, a shallow sea that flooded central North America during thelate CretaceousPeriod (about 100 to 66 million years ago). These are beautifully exposed along theBook Cliffs ofUtah andColorado.[52]
Larger animals that live in coastal areas includepuffins,sea turtles androckhopper penguins, among many others.Sea snails and various kinds ofbarnacles live on rocky coasts and scavenge on food deposited by the sea. Some coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such asdolphins andseagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of thelittoral zone, there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast, includingsessile animals such ascorals, sponges, starfish, mussels, seaweeds, fishes, andsea anemones.
Coastal fish, also called inshore fish or neritic fish, inhabit the sea between theshoreline and the edge of thecontinental shelf. Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres (660 ft) deep, it follows thatpelagic coastal fish are generallyepipelagic fish, inhabiting the sunlitepipelagic zone.[53] Coastal fish can be contrasted withoceanic fish oroffshore fish, which inhabit the deep seas beyond the continental shelves.
Coastal fish are the most abundant in the world.[54] They can be found intidal pools,fjords andestuaries, near sandy shores and rocky coastlines, aroundcoral reefs and on or above the continental shelf. Coastal fish includeforage fish and thepredator fish that feed on them. Forage fish thrive in inshore waters where highproductivity results fromupwelling and shoreline run off of nutrients. Some are partial residents that spawn in streams, estuaries and bays, but most complete their life cycles in the zone.[54]
Many coastal areas are famous for theirkelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growingseaweed that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions.Mangroves,seagrasses, macroalgal beds, andsalt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively.[3][4]Restinga is another type of coastal vegetation.
A settled coastline inMarblehead, Massachusetts. Once a fishing port, the harbor is now dedicated to tourism and pleasure boating. Observe that the sand and rocks have been darkened by oil slick up to the high-water line.This stretch of coast in Tanzania's capital Dar es Salaam serves as a public waste dump.Dead zones occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause excessive growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna.
The pollution of coastlines is connected tomarine pollution which can occur from a number of sources:Marine debris (garbage and industrial debris); thetransportation of petroleum intankers, increasing the probability of largeoil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flushbilge water into the ocean.
Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such asindustrial,agricultural andresidentialwaste,particles,noise, excesscarbon dioxide orinvasive organisms enter theocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, althoughmarine transportation significantly contributes as well.[55] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.[56] Since most inputs come from land, either via therivers,sewage or the atmosphere, it means thatcontinental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution.Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid,nitrogen, silicon, sulfur,pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.[57] The pollution often comes fromnonpoint sources such as agriculturalrunoff, wind-blowndebris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.[58] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff,ship pollution,bilge pollution,dredging (which can createdredge plumes), atmospheric pollution and, potentially,deep sea mining.
The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution frommarine debris,plastic pollution, includingmicroplastics,ocean acidification,nutrient pollution, toxins and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution byplastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down tomicroplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful tomarine life.
Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released inseas or theocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center ofgyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known asbeach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is calledocean dumping. Naturally occurring debris, such asdriftwood anddrift seeds, are also present. With the increasing use ofplastic, human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do notbiodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials.[59] The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in the oceans is discarded andlost nets from the fishing industry.[60] Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat tofish,seabirds,marine reptiles, andmarine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts.[61]
Dumping, container spillages, litter washed intostorm drains andwaterways and wind-blownlandfill waste all contribute to this problem. This increasedwater pollution has caused serious negative effects such as discarded fishing nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massivemarine garbage patches, and increasing concentrations of contaminants in thefood chain.
A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide,[62] and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used, the microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants.[63] These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates.
Because plastic is so widely used across the planet, microplastics have become widespread in the marine environment. For example, microplastics can be found on sandy beaches[64] and surface waters[65] as well as in the water column and deep sea sediment. Microplastics are also found within the many other types of marine particles such as dead biological material (tissue and shells) and some soil particles (blown in by wind and carried to the ocean by rivers). Population density and proximity to urban centers have been considered the main factors that influence the abundance of microplastics in the environment.
Between 1901 and 2018, the averagesea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[66]: 1216 This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[66]: 1216 The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[67]Climate change due to human activities is the main cause.[68]: 5, 8 Between 1993 and 2018, meltingice sheets andglaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting fromthermal expansion ofwater.[69]: 1576
Sea level rise lags behind changes in theEarth's temperature by decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.[70] What happens after that depends on future humangreenhouse gas emissions. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 between 30 cm (1 ft) and 1.0 m (3+1⁄3 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) to130 cm (4+1⁄2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 50cm (1.6 ft) or even by 1.9 m (6.2 ft) by 2100.[71][68][66]: 1302 In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).[68]: 21
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