An urban settlement calledSkodra was founded by theIllyrian tribe ofLabeatae in the 4th century BCE.[9][10] It became the capital of theIllyrian kingdom under theArdiaei andLabeatae and was one of the most important cities of the Balkans in ancient times.[11] It has historically developed on a 130 m (430 ft) hill strategically located in the outflow of Lake Shkodër into the Buna. TheRomans annexed the city after the thirdIllyrian War in 168 BCE, when the Illyrian kingGentius was defeated by the Roman force ofAnicius Gallus.[12][13] In the 3rd century CE, Shkodër became the capital ofPraevalitana, due to the administrative reform of theRoman EmperorDiocletian. With the spread ofChristianity in the 4th century CE, theArchdiocese of Scodra was founded and was assumed in 535 byByzantine EmperorJustinian I.
Shkodër is regarded as the traditional capital ofnorthern Albania, also referred to asGegëria, and is noted for its arts, culture, religious diversity, and turbulent history among theAlbanians. The architecture of Shkodër is particularly dominated by mosques and churches reflecting the city's high degree of religious diversity and tolerance. Shkodër was home to manyinfluential personalities, who among others, helped to shape theAlbanian Renaissance.
The city was first attested in classical sources as the capital of the Illyrian kingdom with the nameSkodra (Ancient Greek: Σκόδρα; genitiveΣκοδρινῶν "of the Skodrians", appearing on 2nd c. BCE coins) andScodra (Latin form).[14][15][16]
Although the ultimate origin of the toponym ΣκόδραScodra is uncertain,[17] the name is certainly pre-Roman. APaleo-Balkan origin has been suggested, relating it to theAlbanian:kodër (definite form:kodra) 'hill', andRomanian:codru '(wooded) mountain, forest', with the same root as the ancient toponymCodrio/Kodrion.[18]
The further development of the name has been a subject of discussion in Albanian historical linguistics. Some linguists treat the development from IllyrianΣκόδραSkodra to AlbanianShkodra/Shkodër as evidence of regular development within the Albanian language. Others have argued that AlbanianShkodra/Shkodër fails to display certain known phonological changes that would have to have happened if the name had been continually in use inProto-Albanian since pre-Roman times, based on the fact that*/sk-/ consonant clusters are usually morphed into a*/h-/, and not*/ʃk-/, ando is morphed intoa, not preserved.[17][19][20] However, the phonetic changessk >h ando >a occurred at an early stage of Proto-Albanian, because they regularly do not involve early Greek and Latin loanwords. Contacts of Albanian with Greek date back as early as the 7th century BCE since the foundation of the Greek colonies on the Adriatic coast of Albania, hence those phonetic changes in Proto-Albanian certainly predate the foundation of Skodra (4th century BCE) and the usage of its name. On the other hand, theo inShkodër would postdate first contacts with Latin, because in the earliest Latin loanwords in Albanian theŏ is rendered asu.[21] The preservation ofŏ in the Albanian form is to be explained probably because Latin was the predominant language of the Adriatic coastal areas, naturally exercising a significant pressure and influencing the linguistic forms of the local toponyms in Albanian. Similar cases of this process can be seen in the old Albanian toponymTrieshtë, which evolved regularly through Albanian phonetic changes fromTrieste, but which was recently replaced in Albanian under strong pressure from Italian into the current nameTrieste; and the old Albanian toponymGjenòvë, which evolved regularly through Albanian phonetic changes formGenova, also featuring the characteristic Albanian accent rule.[22] Nevertheless, the Albanian toponymShkodër certainly predates the end of the ancient Roman period.[23][24][20][25]
The earliest signs of human activity in the lands of Shkodër can be traced back to theMiddle Paleolithic (120,000–30,000 years ago).[27] Artifacts and faunal remains provide evidence that the first inhabitants of the area of Shkodër were Pleistocene hunter-gatherers.[28] Presence ofNeolithic farmers is also testified by artifacts. TheCopper and EarlyBronze Ages constitute an important watershed for the social evolution on the territories of the easternAdriatic coast, including Shkodër, with the formation of new cultures and the beginning of new complex historical, ethnogenetic and cultural processes. This period represents for Shkodër the first step of a process of occupation and development. The inhabitants of the intensively settled Shkodër basin produced pottery, practiced agriculture, and manufactured metal tools.[28] Shkodra's Early Bronze Age culture bears many similarities with the culture of the Eastern Adriatic coast and its hinterland, like theCetina culture, and it also has connections with the Early Bronze Age culture ofMaliq in southeastern Albania. During the developed Early Bronze Age the new practice oftumulus burials appears, which may be associated toIndo-European migrations from the steppes. During the Middle and Late Bronze Age the settlements in the region and extraregional interactions apparently increased. In the Late Bronze Age the inhabitants of Shkodra basin had contacts with Italy or northwest Greece. By the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age (c. 1100–800 BCE), the formation of a large, cohesive, and quite homogeneous cultural group had already occurred in a well defined territory of the Shkodra region, which was referred in historical sources to as 'the tribe of theLabeatae' in later times.[9]
The favorable conditions on the fertileplain, around thelake, have brought people here in early antiquity. Artefacts and inscriptions, discovered in theRozafa Castle, are assumed to be the earliest examples of symbolic behaviour in humans in the city. Although, it was known under the name Scodra and was inhabited by theIllyrian tribes of theLabeates andArdiaei, which ruled over a large territory between modern Albania up to Croatia.[29][30][31] KingAgron, QueenTeuta and KingGentius, were among the most famous personalities of theArdiaei.
The city was first mentioned during antiquity as the site of the Illyrian Labeates in which they minted coins and that of Queen Teuta.[32] In 168 BCE, the city was captured by theRomans and became an important trade and military route. TheRomans colonized[33] the town. Scodra remained in the province ofIllyricum and, later,Dalmatia. By it 395 CE, it was part of theDiocese of Dacia, withinPraevalitana.After the split of the Roman Empire, Shkodra was taken by the Byzantines.[34]
In the early 11th century,Jovan Vladimir ruledDuklja amidst the war betweenBasil II and Samuel. Vladimir allegedly retreated intoKoplik when Samuel invaded Duklja and was subsequently forced to accept Bulgarian vassalage. He was later slain by the Bulgarians. Shingjon (feast of Jovan Vladimir) has since been celebrated by Albanian Orthodox Christians.[35]
In the 1030s,Stefan Vojislav fromTravunija, then part ofMedieval Serbia,[citation needed] expelled the laststrategos and successfully defeated the Byzantines by 1042. Stefan Vojislav set up Shkodër, as his capital.[36]Constantine Bodin accepted thecrusaders of theCrusade of 1101 in Shkodër. After the dynastic struggles in the 12th century, Shkodër became an integral part of the SerbianNemanjićZeta province. In 1214 the city was briefly annexed toDespotate of Epirus underMichael I Komnenos Doukas.[37] In 1330,Stefan Dečanski, King of Serbia, appointed his sonStefan Dušan as the governor of Zeta with its seat in Shkodër.[38] In the same year Dušan and his father entered the conflict which resulted with campaign of Dečanski who destroyed Dušan's court onDrin River near Shkodër in January 1331. In April 1331, they made a truce,[39] but in August 1331 Dušan went from Shkodër to Nerodimlje and overthrew his father.[40]
During the disintegration of theSerbian Empire, Shkodër was taken by the AlbanianBalshaj family, who surrendered the city to theRepublic of Venice in 1396, in order to form a protection zone from theOttoman Empire. During the Venetian rule the city adopted theStatutes of Scutari, a civic law written inVenetian. TheStatutes of Scutari mentionAlbanian andSlavic presence in the city, but underVenetian rule manyDalmatians were brought to Shkodra and as such formed the majority there. After theBlack Death killed most of the inhabitants Albanians and Slavs formed the majority in the city.[41] Venetians built theSt. Stephen's Church (later converted into theFatih Sultan Mehmet Mosque by the Ottomans) and theRozafa Castle. In 1478-79 Mehmed the conqueror laid siege on Shkodër. In 1479 the city fell to the Ottomans and the defenders of the citadel emigrated to Venice, while many Albanians from the region retreated into the mountains. On the other hand the upper classes of the city, aided by theJonima family settled in the cities ofRavena,Venice andTreviso. The city then became a seat of a newly established Ottoman sanjak, the Sanjak of Scutari.
TheMesi Bridge was built in 1770 and is one of the longest Ottoman bridges in the region.
With twosieges, Shkodër became secure as an Ottoman territory. It became the centre of thesanjak and by 1485 there were 27 Muslim and 70 Christian hearths, although by the end of the next century there were more than 200 Muslim ones compared to the 27 Christian ones, respectively.[42]
Military manoeuvres in 1478 by the Ottomans meant that the city was again entirely surrounded byOttoman forces.Mehmed II personally laidthe siege. About ten heavy cannons were cast on site. Balls as heavy as 380 kg (838 lb) were fired on the citadel (such balls are still on display on the castle museum). Nevertheless, the city resisted. Mehmed left the field and had his commanders continue the siege. By the winter theOttomans had captured one after the other all adjacent castles:Lezhë,Drisht andŽabljak Crnojevića. This, together with famine and constant bombardment lowered the morale of defenders. On the other hand, theOttomans were already frustrated by the stubborn resistance. The castle is situated on a naturally protected hill and every attempted assault resulted in considerable casualties for the attackers. A truce became an option for both parties. On January 25 an agreement between the Venetians and theOttoman Empire ended the siege, permitting the citizens to leave unharmed, and the Ottomans to take over the deserted city.
View of Shkodër in the distance, Rozafa castle on top of a rocky mountain - 17th centuryShkodra depicted byEdward Lear: Albanians smoking by the riverDrin, with theRozafa Castle and theLead Mosque in the background, 4 October 1848[43]
After Ottoman domination was secure, much of the population fled. Around the 17th century, the city began to prosper as the centre of theSanjak of Scutari (sanjak was an Ottoman administrative unit smaller than avilayet). It became the economic centre of northern Albania, its craftsmen producing fabric, silk, arms and silver artifacts. Construction included two-storey stone houses, thesouk, and the Central or Middle Bridge (Ura e Mesit) over the Kir river, built during the second half of the 18th century, over 100 m (330 ft) long, with 13 arcs of stone, the largest one being 22 m (72 ft) wide and 12 m (39 ft) tall.
Shkodër was a major city under Ottoman rule in southeast Europe. It retained its importance up until the end of the empire's rule in the Balkans in the early 20th century. This is due to its geo-strategic position that connects it directly with theAdriatic and with the Italian ports, but also with land-routes to the other important Ottoman centre, namelyPrizren. The city was an important meeting place of diverse cultures from other parts of the Empire, as well as influences coming westwards, by Italian merchants. It was a centre ofIslam in the region, producing manyulama, poets and administrators, particularly from theBushati family.In the 18th century Shkodër became the centre of the (pashaluk) of Shkodër, under the rule of theBushati family, which ruled from 1757 to 1831.
In 1737, 178 Catholic families were recorded in Shkodër, all of them Albanian.[44]
Shkodër's importance as a trade centre in the second half of the 19th century was owed to the fact that it was the centre of thevilayet of Shkodër, and an important trading centre for the entire Balkan peninsula. It had over 3,500 shops, and clothing, leather, tobacco and gunpowder were some of the major products of Shkodër. A special administration was established to handle trade, a trade court, and a directorate of postage services with other countries. Other countries had opened consulates in Shkodër ever since 1718.Obot andUlcinj served as ports for Shkodër, and, later on,Shëngjin (San Giovanni di Medua). TheJesuit seminary and theFranciscan committee were opened in the 19th century.
Following the rebellion ofMustafa Pasha Bushatlliu Shkodër was sieged by the Ottomans for more than six months who finally managed to break the Albanian resistance on 10 November 1831. In 1833 around 4,000 Albanian rebels seized the town again holding off the Ottoman forces between April and December and even sending a delegation to Istanbul until the Ottoman government finally gave in to their terms giving an end to the rebellion.
Before 1867 Shkodër (İşkodra) was asanjak ofRumelia Eyalet inOttoman Empire. In 1867, Shkodër sanjak merged withSkopje (Üsküp) sanjak and becameShkodër vilayet. Shkodër vilayet was split into Shkodër,Prizren andDibra sanjaks. In 1877, Prizren passed toKosovo vilayet andDebar passed toMonastir vilayet, whileDurrës township became a sanjak. In 1878Bar andPodgorica townships belonged toMontenegro. Ottoman-Albanian intellectualSami Frashëri during the 1880s estimated the population of Shkodër as numbering 37,000 inhabitants that consisted of three quarters being Muslims and the rest Christians made up of mostly Catholics and a few hundred Orthodox.[45] In 1900, Shkodër vilayet was split into Shkodër andDurrës sanjaks.
Shkodër played an important role during theLeague of Prizren, the Albanian liberation movement. The people of Shkodër participated in battles to protect Albanian land. The branch of the League of Prizren for Shkodër, which had its own armed unit, fought for the protection ofPlav,Gusinje,Hoti andGruda, and the war for the protection of Ulcinj. The Bushati Library, built during the 1840s, served as a centre for the League of Prizren's branch for Shkodër. Many books were collected in libraries ofCatholic missionaries working in Shkodër. Literary, cultural and sports associations were formed, such asBashkimi ("The Union") andAgimi ("The Dawn"). The first Albanian newspapers and publications printed in Albania came out of the printing press of Shkodër. The Marubi family of photographers began working in Shkodër, which left behind over 150,000 negatives from the period of the Albanian liberation movement, the rise of the Albanian flag inVlorë, and life in Albanian towns during the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.
During theBalkan Wars, Shkodër went from one occupation to another, when the Ottomans were defeated by theKingdom of Montenegro. The Ottoman forces led byHasan Riza Pasha and Esad Pasha had resisted for seven months the siege of the town by Montenegrin forces and their Serbian allies.Esad (Hasan had previously been mysteriously killed byEssad Toptani in an ambush inside the town) finally surrendered to Montenegro in April 1913, after Montenegro suffered a high death toll with more than 10,000 casualties.Edith Durham also notes the cruelties suffered at the hand of Montenegrins in the wake of October 1913: "Thousands of refugees arriving from Djakovo and neighbourhood. Victims of Montenegro. My position was indescribably painful, for I had no funds left, and women came to me crying: 'If you will not feed my child, throw it in the river. I cannot see it starve.'"[46] Montenegro was compelled to leave the city to the new country ofAlbania in May 1913, in accordance with theLondon Conference of Ambassadors.
DuringWorld War I, Montenegrin forces again occupied Shkodër on 27 June 1915. In January 1916, Shkodër was taken over byAustria-Hungary and was the centre of the zone of their occupation. When the war ended on 11 November 1918, French forces occupied Shkodër as well as other regions with sizable Albanian populations. After World War I, the international military administration of Albania was temporarily located in Shkodër, and in March 1920, Shkodër was put under the administration of the national government of Tirana. In the second half of 1920, during theSerbian-Albanian War, Shkodër resisted the Serbian invasion under the lead ofSylço Bushati and financial aid provided by notable figures such asMusa Juka.[47]
Shkodër was the centre of democratic movements of the years 1921–1924. The democratic opposition won the majority of votes for the Constitutional Assembly, and on 31 May 1924, the democratic forces took over the town and from Shkodër headed to Tirana. From 1924 to 1939, Shkodër had a slow industrial development, small factories that produced food, textile and cement were opened. From 43 of such in 1924, the number rose to 70 in 1938. In 1924, Shkodër had 20,000 inhabitants, the number grew to 29,000 in 1938. During September 1928, Albania was proclaimed a monarchy byKing Zog I. He was a self-made Muslim monarch and the king of all Albanians until 1939 when Italyinvaded Albania, Shkoder resisted under the lead of Mehmet Ullagaj but fell soon afterwards.[48] After 1939, Zog went into exile andVictor Emmanuel III became the king of the Albanians. Shortly after World War II, Emmanuel was formally abdicated in 1946. In 1945,Enver Hoxha established communism in Albania.[49]
Shkodër was the seat of aCatholicarchbishopric and had a number of religious schools. The first laic school was opened here in 1913, and the State Gymnasium was opened in 1922. It was the centre of many cultural associations. In sports Shkodër was the first city in Albania to constitute a sports association, the "Vllaznia" (brotherhood).Vllaznia Shkodër is the oldest sport club in Albania.
During the early 1990s, Shkodër was once again a major centre, this time of the democratic movement that finally brought to an end thecommunist regime established byEnver Hoxha. In the later 2000s (decade), the city experiences a rebirth as main streets are being paved, buildings painted and streets renamed. In December 2010, Shkodër and the surrounding region was hit by probably the worst flooding in the last 100 years.[50] In 2011, a newswing bridge over the Buna was constructed, thus replacing the old bridge nearby.
Shkodër extends strategically on the Mbishkodra Plain between theLake of Shkodër and the foothills of theAlbanian Alps, which forms the southern continuation of theDinaric Alps. The northeast of the city is dominated by Mount Maranaj standing at 1,576 m (5,171 ft)above the Adriatic. Shkodër is trapped on three sides byKir in the east,Drin in the south and Buna in the west. Rising from the Lake of Shkodër, Buna flows into the Adriatic Sea, forming the border withMontenegro. The river joins the Drin for approximately 2 km (1.2 mi) southwest of the city. In the east, Shkodër is bordered by Kir, which originates from the north flowing also into the Drin, that surrounds Shkodër in the south. The area of the municipality of Shkodër is 872.71 km2 (336.96 sq mi);[1][2] the area of the municipal unit of Shkodër (the city proper) is 16.46 km2 (6.36 sq mi).[3]
Lake Shkodër lies in the west of the city and forms the frontier ofAlbania andMontenegro. The lake became the symbol of the stable and consistent economic and social divide of the city. Although, the lake is the largest lake inSouthern Europe and an important habitat for variousanimal andplant species. Further, the Albanian section has been designated as anature reserve. In 1996, it also has been recognised as awetland of international importance by designation under theRamsar Convention.[51] Buna connects the lake with the Adriatic Sea, while the Drin provides a link withLake Ohrid in the southeast of Albania.[52] It is acryptodepression, filled by the riverMorača and drained into theAdriatic by the 41-kilometre-long (25 mi) Buna.
Shköder has a borderlinehot-summer Mediterranean (Köppen:Csa) andhumid subtropical (Köppen:Cfa) climate.[53] Mean monthly temperature ranges between 1.8 °C (35.2 °F) to 10.3 °C (50.5 °F) in January and 20.2 °C (68.4 °F) to 33.6 °C (92.5 °F) in August. The average yearly precipitation is about 1,500 mm (59.1 in), which makes the area one of the wettest inEurope.
Climate data for Shkodër (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
The main activities of the processing industry in Shkodra were the processing of tobacco and manufacture of cigarettes, production of preserved foods, sugar-based foods, soft and alcoholic drinks, and pasta, bread, rice and vegetable oil. The main activities of the textile industry were focused on garments and silk products. The city also had a wood-processing and paper-production plant. The most important mechanical engineering industries concerned wire manufacturing, elevator manufacturing, bus assembly and the Drini Plant.[64]
According to the World Bank, Shkodër has had significant steps of improving the economy in recent years. In 2016, Shkodër ranked 8[65] among 22 cities in southeastern Europe.
As the largest city in northernAlbania, the city is the main road connection between the Albanian capital,Tirana and Montenegrin capitalPodgorica. TheSH1 leads to the Albanian–Montenegrin border atHan i Hotit border crossing. From Tirana at the Kamza Bypass northward, it passes throughFushë-Kruja, Milot,Lezha, Shkodra and Koplik. The road segment between Hani i Hotit at the Montenegrin border and Shkodra was completed in 2013 as a single carriageway standard. Shkodër Bypass started after the 2010 Albania floods. It was planned to incorporate a defensive dam against Shkodër Lake but works were abandoned a few years later. The road continues as a single carriageway down to Milot and contains some uncontrolled and dangerous entry and exit points. The SH5 starts from Shkodër to Morinë.
The city of Shkodër was one of the most important centres for Islamic scholars and cultural and literary activity in Albania. Here stands the site of the only institution in Albania which provides high-level education in Arabic, Turkish and Islamic Studies.[71] Shkodër is the centre ofRoman Catholicism in Albania. TheRoman Catholic Church is represented in Shkodër by the episcopal seat of the MetropolitanRoman Catholic Archdiocese of Shkodër-Pult (Scutari-Pulati) inShkodër Cathedral, with the current seat of the prelacy.
Shkodër is referred to as the capital and cultural cradle ofnorthern Albania, also known asGegëria, for having been the birthplace and home ofnotable individuals, who among others contributed to theAlbanian Renaissance.[3][72] Most of the inhabitants of Shkodër speak a distinctive dialect of northwesternGheg Albanian that differs from otherAlbanian dialects.[73] Shkodër has also a long tradition in the development of the urban music of Albania, marked by a characteristic use of instrumentation and a style of composition.[74]
Rozafa Castle has played an instrumental role in Shkodër's history as the residence ofIllyrian monarchs and a military stronghold.[75] Located in the south of Shkodër, its foundations are associated with a legend about a woman who sacrificed herself so the castle could be constructed.[75][76] Historical Museum of Shkodër is the most important museum in Shkodër and was founded to protect artefacts from all over the region of Shkodër, thus displaying their cultural and historical value.[3][77] It is housed inside a monumental mansion from the 19th century, collectively known as the house ofOso Kuka.[3] The expandedMarubi National Museum of Photography located on the Kolë Idromeno Street displays an extensive visual collection of Albanian social, cultural and political life beginning from 1850 on its galleries.[3][78][79]
^De Angelis, Daniela, ed. (2014)."Scutari".Oppo e 3 ricerche su Pomezia. Gangemi.ISBN9788849228823.Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved2020-11-15.Scutari fu fondata intorno al V-IV secolo a.C. Dagli scavi archeologici eseguiti al castello di Rozafa, si dedusse che il centro era già abitato dall'età del bronzo
^Shpuza, Saimir; Dyczek, Piotr (2015). "Scodra, de la capitale du Royaume Illyrien à la capitale de la province romaine". In Jean-Luc Lamboley; Luan Përzhita; Altin Skenderaj (eds.).L'Illyrie Méridionale et l'Épire dans l'Antiquité – VI (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Diffusion De Boccard. p. 269.ISBN978-9928-4517-1-2.
^Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31Bc, from the Historians of the Ancient World (Greenhill Historic Series) by John Drogo Montagu,ISBN1-85367-389-7, 2000, page 47
^Krahe, Hans (1925).Die alten balkanillyrischen geographischen Namen auf Grund von Autoren und Inschriften. Heidelberg. p. 36.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Cabej, Eqrem (1974). "Die Frage nach dem Entstehungsgebiet der albanischen Sprache".Zeitschrift für Balkanologie.1012:7–32.; cited after Matzinger 2009.
^abDemiraj, Shaban (1999).Prejardhja e shqiptarëve nën dritën e dëshmive të gjuhës shqipe. Tirana. pp. 143–144.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link); cited after Matzinger 2009.
^Origins: Serbs, Albanians and VlachsChapter 2 in Noel Malcolm's Kosovo, a short history (Macmilan, London, 1998, p. 22-40) - The evidence is in fact very mixed; some of the Albanian forms (of both urban and rural names) suggest transmission via Slav, but others -including the towns of Shkodra, Drisht, Lezha, Shkup (Skopje) and perhaps Shtip (Stip, south-east of Skopje) - follow the pattern of continuous Albanian development from the Latin. [48] (One common objection to this argument, claiming that 'sc-' in Latin should have turned into 'h-', not 'shk-' in Albanian, rests on a chronological error, and can be disregarded.) [49] There are also some fairly convincing derivations of Slav names for rivers in northern Albania - particularly the Bojana (Alb.: Buena) and the Drim (Alb.: Drin) - which suggest that the Slavs must have acquired their names from the Albanian forms. [50
^The Illyrians by John Wilkes,ISBN0-631-19807-5, 1992, page 172, "...Gentius among the Labeates around Scodra..."
^The Illyrians by John Wilkes, page 213, "The list of Roman settlements includes some of the... Scodra..."
^Rrota, Justin (2010) [1963].Ditët e mbrame të Turqisë në Shkodër ase Rrethimi i Qytetit 1912-1913. Shkodër: Botime Françeskane. p. 21.ISBN9789995678371.
^Miladin Stevanović; Vuk Branković (srpski velmoža.) (2004).Vuk Branković. Knjiga-komerc. p. 38.ISBN9788677120382. Retrieved20 April 2013.После битке код Велбужда млади краљ Душан, чији је углед знатно порастао, добио је од оца на управљање Зету са седиштем у Скадру.
^Nikolić, Dejan (1996).Svi vladari Srbije. Narodna biblioteka "Resavska škola". p. 102. Retrieved21 December 2013.Стефан Душан је августа 1331. крен- уо са својом војском из Скадра и дошао до Стефановог дворца у Неродимљу, где је изненадио оца. Краљ Стефан је једва успео да побегне из свог дворца у град Петрич у коме га је Душанова војска опколила
^Pešić V. & Glöer P. (2013). "A new freshwater snail genus (Hydrobiidae, Gastropoda) from Montenegro, with a discussion on gastropod diversity and endemism in Skadar Lake".ZooKeys281: 69-90.doi:10.3897/zookeys.281.4409
Piotr Dyczek; Krzysztof Jakubiak; Adam Lajtar, eds. (2020). "Rhizon–capital of the Illyrian kingdom–some remarks".Ex Oriente Lux. Studies in Honour of Jolanta Młynarczyk.University of Warsaw Press. pp. 423–433.
Lafe, Genc (2022). "I rapporti tra toponimi e voci ereditate dell'albanese sulla base dell'analisi della loro evoluzione fonetica". In Shaban Sinani; Francesco Altimari; Matteo Mandalà (eds.).Albanologu i arvanitëve "Atje kam u shpirtin tim...".Academy of Sciences of Albania. pp. 355–370.ISBN978-9928-339-74-4.
Matzinger, Joachim (2009a). "Die Albaner als Nachkommen der Illyrer aus der Sicht der historischen Sprachwissenschaft". In Schmitt, Oliver Jens; Frantz, Eva Anne (eds.).Albanische Geschichte: Stand und Perspektiven der Forschung (in German). Munich: Oldenbourg.
Matzinger, Joachim (2009b). "Shqiptarët si pasardhës të ilirëve nga këndvështrimi i gjuhësisë historike". In Schmitt, Oliver Jens; Frantz, Eva Anne (eds.).Historia e Shqiptarëve: Gjendja dhe perspektivat e studimeve (in Albanian). Translated by Pandeli Pani and Artan Puto. Botime Përpjekja.ISBN978-99943-0-254-3.
Shpuza, Saimir (2014). Dyczek, Piotr (ed.). "Iron Age Fortifications and the Origin of the City in the Territory of Scodra".Novensia.25. Warszawa: Ośrodek Badań nad Antykiem Europy Południowo-Wschodniej:105–126.ISBN978-83-934239-96.ISSN0860-5777.
Shpuza, Saimir; Dyczek, Piotr (2015). "Scodra, de la capitale du Royaume Illyrien à la capitale de la province romaine". In Jean-Luc Lamboley; Luan Përzhita; Altin Skenderaj (eds.).L'Illyrie Méridionale et l'Épire dans l'Antiquité – VI (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Diffusion De Boccard. pp. 269–278.ISBN978-9928-4517-1-2.
Shpuza, Saimir (2017). Dyczek, Piotr (ed.). "Scodra and the Labeates. Cities, rural fortifications and territorial defense in the Hellenistic period".Novensia.28. Warszawa: Ośrodek Badań nad Antykiem Europy Południowo-Wschodniej:41–64.ISBN978-83-946222-5-1.ISSN0860-5777.
.jpg)
_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%2527Orto%2c_12-Aug-2007_-_11_-_Maometto_II_assedia_Scutari.jpg)
.jpg)
