Sect Shinto (教派神道,Kyōha Shintō, or 宗派神道,Shuha Shintō) refers to several independent, organizedShinto groups that were excluded byJapanese law in 1882 from government-runState Shinto.[1] Compared to mainstreamShrine Shinto, which focuses primarily on rituals, these independent groups have a more developedtheology.[2] Many such groups are organized under the Association of Sectarian Shinto (教派神道連合会,Kyōha Shintō Rengōkai).[3] BeforeWorld War II, Sect Shinto consisted of 13 denominations, which were referred to as the 13 Shinto schools. Since then, there have been additions to and withdrawals from membership.
Whereas Shrine Shinto is an aggregation of various shrines and customary beliefs in various parts of Japan (which became united under theIse Grand Shrine after the Meiji period), Sect Shinto is based on thekokugaku (lit. 'national study') school of philosophy.Tenrikyo was categorized as Sect Shinto but is often considered a separatemonotheistic religion.[4]
While it has roots in the lateEdo period, Sect Shinto became more firmly established in theMeiji era after theMeiji Restoration.[5] Its formation was stimulated by the religious policies of the Meiji government,[6] and it emerged at a time when there was increasing theological discussion among people of a wider range of classes, rather than only between intellectuals.[7]
In 1868, the religious administration of the new Meiji government issued theShinto-Buddhist Separation Order, resulting in thehaibutsu kishaku and the restoration of theunity of ritual and government system. Following theTaikyo Proclamation, which designated Shinto as the state religion, theGreat Teaching Institute was established, though it was soon reformed into theBureau of Shinto Affairs and later the sectShinto Taikyo.[citation needed]
During these early trial-and-error religious policies, the Meiji government promoted a nationalized system of Shinto education by religious instructors known askyōdō shoku.[6] However, with the spread of the ideas ofseparation of church and state andfreedom of religion, thekyōdō shoku ended. This produced a division in Shinto between shrines for state-run public rituals and religious groups centered on edification.[6] Groups that met certain conditions (such as the number of followers) were officially recognized as "independent denominations." This was the beginning of the denominational Sect Shinto.
This separation strengthened the idea that it was necessary to establish an institution that was a more developed version of the former Shodo Shido Practice Center.[citation needed] Accordingly, the Meiji government established theOffice of Japanese Classics Research inTokyo Prefecture, independent of the Bureau of Shinto Affairs, in order to organize the exploration of ideas unique to Japan. It was later succeeded byKokugakuin University.
The impetus for denominational Shinto was the separation of Shinto and Buddhism, which began in 1868 (first year of Meiji) with the revival of theDepartment of Divinities and theseparation of Shinto and Buddhism, which started with the Shinto-Buddhist Hanzen Order, apremodern imperial government directive.[8] This led to the formation of theunity of ritual and government, and a Shinto government was revived. Around then, official decrees abolished the hereditary system of Shinto priests, thus ending the jurisdiction of theShirakawa [ja] andYoshida families [ja] over Shinto.[8]
The rituals of the Shinto shrines are the religious services of the state, and it is, of course, true that they are not the private property of one person or one family. This is a common practice in the country, and priests are considered to be a separate species from the people.
— Meiji 4th Year Taishogun's Bulletin No. 234
During this transition, the concept of missionaries to propagate Shinto remained. In 1870 (Meiji 3), the imperialTaikyo Proclamation designated Shinto as the state religion.[9][10] TheGreat Teaching Institute was established in 1872 (Meiji 5) as a missionary organization, but was dissolved in 1875 (Meiji 8). It was succeeded by theBureau of Shinto Affairs in the same year, to which the originally disparate folk belief religions belonged.
In 1872, theMissionary Office was abolished and replaced with theMinistry of Religion.[11] In April, Shinto priests and monks were assignedkyōdō shoku positions, of which there were 14 ranks.[9] The Ministry was later dissolved in 1877, andkyōdō shoku was abolished in 1884.[12]
The priesthood was initially divided in two geographically in two, with the eastern division headed byKonoe Tadafusa, priest ofIse Grand Shrine, and the western division headed bySenge Takatomi, the grand priest ofIzumo Taisha Shrine. Since it was assumed that one's religious affiliation was free, there was a struggle for power between the Ise and Izumo factions.[13] On January 30, 1873, the two-part system was abolished and the two regions were combined. However, they were once again divided later[when?] becoming a three-part system withSenge Takatomi,Koga Takemichi [ja], andInaba Masakuni, and then a four-part system with the addition of Tanaka Yoriyasu, the grand priest of theIse Grand Shrine. On that same day,[when?] theKurozumikyō andShinto Shusei were specially established as denominational Shinto sects, and the compartment system was abolished.[14]
In May 1873, the Ministry of Religion issued a religious ordinance, which set standards for the approval ofkosha (religious lectures or meetings). In August, the Ministry approved the Kurozumikyō, the Tohokami (laterMisogi-Kyo), the Mitake, and the Fuji Isan (laterFuso-kyo), as well as Buddhistkosha.[15]
In 1873, theGreat Teaching Institute was established—first in Kojimachi,Kioicho and later in Masukami, Shiba atZōjō-ji—as the head temple forkyōdō shoku of a joint Shinto and Buddhist sect.[16] The Taikyo Institute was initiated by the Buddhist side to concretize teaching by the Ministry of Religion, but it later became focused entirely on Shinto.[17] The Buddhist side, led byShinshū, broke away from the institute.[16] On April 30, 1875, the Taikyo Institute was dissolved by order of the Ministry of Religion.[18]
TheBureau of Shinto Affairs was formed in March 1875, just prior to the dissolution of the Taikyo Institute, by a group of Shinto shrines, atIse Grand Shrine and other shrines throughout Japan, as well as by Shinto priests and instructors belonging to private Shinto-relatedkosha.[16] The Shinto side felt that there was no organization that corresponded to the various Buddhist sects,[17] and on March 27, 1875 (Meiji 8), Grand High Priest Suechi Sanjonishi, Grand Priest-in-ChargeInaba Masakuni, Yoriyasu Tanaka,Hirayama Seisai, and Konosetsu Tsume jointly petitioned the Ministry of Religion for the establishment of a government office for Shinto.[19][20]
The next day, on March 28, 1875, he[who?] received permission to establish the Bureau of Shinto Affairs.[19] On April 8, he requested that the Ministry of Religion establish the Bureau of Shinto Affairs. The content of the request was that even small shrines, centering on the Imperial Shrine at Ise, should be able to cooperate with each other for the purpose of propagating Shinto.[19] On April 15, the Bureau of Shinto Affairs was opened in the Tokyo Branch Office of the Jingu Shichosha.[21] Once the Bureau of Shinto Affairs was prepared—bringing together the traditionally existing shrines, Shintokosha, and congregations following folk beliefs—various denominations that met certain conditions were able to branch out and become independent from it.
The following year, in 1876 (Meiji 9), adormitory was established in the Shinto Office to train priests. Also, that year, theKurozumikyō andShinto Shusei, which had been flourishing, became independent denominations.[22]
Inaba Masakuni was the first president of the Bureau of Shinto Affairs.[23] Yoriyasu Tanaka was the Chief of Ise Jingu and the first head ofJingūkyō.[24]Hirayama Seisai was the grand priest of Hikawa Shrine and the first headmaster ofShinto Taiseikyo andOntake-kyo.[25] Kousetsu Tsume would become the second head minister of the Ontake Sect.[26]
In 1886, the Bureau of Shinto Affairs was reorganized, later becoming the sectShinto Taikyo.
The Bureau of Shinto Affairs had a plan to make Jingu Haruhaiden (later becomingTokyo Daijingu) the central temple[12] and a center for missionary work.[27] Since Jingu Haruhaiden was to enshrine a branch spirit ofAmaterasu, not only the Ministry of Religion but also the Emperor visited the building and obtained permission from theSeiin [ja] to begin construction, which was funded by donations from the Imperial Household Agency and various families.[27]
In 1880, the opinion ofSenge Takatomi on the deities to be worshipped in the Bureau of Shinto Affairs' temples was so controversial that it divided Shinto into the Ise and Izumo factions.[28] By order of the Meiji Emperor, a great conference on Shinto was held in January 1881 (Meiji 14), attended by 118 people, including all the chief priests of the government buildings and the instructors of the sixth grade and above. However, the issue could not be settled. Thus, it was settled in February by the imperial decision of the Meiji Emperor.[12]
In January 1882, the separation of ritual and religion was enacted by the Ministry of Home Affairs through Bill No. 7, which prohibited those in thekyōdō shoku (priest-teacher position) from performing rituals, thereby promoting the separation of those who continued to be priests performing rituals or preaching the teachings, and solidifying the formation of Sect Shinto.[28][1]
Priests shall no longer serve as teachers and shall not be involved in funeral services.
— January 24, Meiji 15, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications No. 7
After this, on May 15, 1882, the six factions (including Jingūkyō) became independent. Jingu Haruhayashiden[spelling?] (the source of the ritual god controversy) was transferred to Jingūkyō's ownership and renamedDaijingu Shrine, andJingū Taima were distributed by Jingūkyō.[29]Senge Takatomi took the opportunity to resign from his position as priest of Izumo Taisha Shrine and handed it over to his younger brother, who became the head of the Izumo Taisha Sect.[30]
On August 11, 1884, the government issued a proclamation abolishing thekyōdō shoku position.[31] In turn, this meant the Bureau of Shinto Affairs had lost its original reason for opening,[31] and so in 1886, the Bureau reorganized; it later becameShinto Taikyo, one of the schools of Shinto.[citation needed]
On November 4, 1881, theOffice of Japanese Classics Research was established as a successor to the Bureau of Shinto Affairs.[32] Like its predecessor, it was a unified Shinto missionary organization established to train Shinto priests.[33] Funded by an imperial gift, it purchased a mansion in Iidacho, Kojimachi-ku (present-dayChiyoda-ku).[33]
Immediately after the Great Council of Shinto, it was decided to establish the Office upon the proposal of Akiyoshi Yamada ofLord of Home Affairs [ja].[34]Prince Arisugawa Takahito was appointed as its first president, and announced his intention to pursue a unique Japanese academic discipline.[35] In the "Announcement of the Establishment of the Imperial Academy" (jointly signed by Li-Kuro Kubo, Yorikuni Inoue, Nakasaburo Itsumi, and Hans Shishino), the intention of the establishment of the academy was to train personnel to maintainkokutai (national identity).[36] The Imperial Institute established branches in the provinces and qualified students for the priesthood.[34]
The Office was later succeeded byKokugakuin University.
In December 1868 (the first year of Meiji), the Imperial Academy was established in Kyoto but was abolished the following year. When the Ministry of Religion was established in 1872, it was responsible for research.[37][38]
In 1882 (Meiji 15), institutes of imperial studies were established one after another. This was due to a keen awareness of the need for doctrinal studies in the rites and rituals controversy. The controversy was divided between the doctrinalists (denominational Shinto sects) and the national scholars (academics). As the doctrinalists became independent, the national scholars were stimulated and the separation of doctrine and learning progressed.[32] On April 30, Jingūkyō establishedKōgakkan University in Ise.[32] On May 30, the Department of Classics was established at theUniversity of Tokyo.[34]
On December 15, 1945, theSupreme Commander for the Allied Powers (GHQ) issued theShinto Directive aimed at dismantling State Shinto. In January of the following year, the Dai Nihon Shinto-kai, the Imperial Academy, and the Jingu Bonan-kai were dissolved to form theAssociation of Shinto Shrines, a religious corporation.[39] In March, Jingu-Shogakukan University was abolished by the Shinto directive; in April, representatives of each denomination explained their denomination to the GHQ Civilian Information and Education Department at Broadcasting Hall 108.[40] In June, at a meeting at Tenrikyo's Honshiba Grand Church between the presidents of the various schools and W. K. Vance, head of the Religious Affairs Division at GHQ, the occupying forces promised not to impose any restrictions on the religious activities of the Shinto sects.[40]
Tenrikyo established a policy of restoration immediately in 1945, and Konkokyo established the Council for the Establishment of the Faith in 1951 to eliminate Shinto colors.[41]
The system in which there were 13 Shinto sects and 13 Buddhist sects recognized by the government was broken up into even smaller groups as religious organizations when the Religious Corporation Law was enacted.[citation needed]
Many of the scholars who had played a central role in Shinto research and education were expelled and replaced by folklorists such asShinobu Orikuchi andKunio Yanagita, as well as younger Shinto scholars who escaped expulsion.[42] On March 20, 1946,Kokugakuin University became a corporation, and the training of priests, which had been commissioned by the Ministry of Home Affairs, was continued from April as a new commission from the Jinja Main Office. The following year, Vance and Woodard of the Religious Affairs Division of GHQ decided that there was no problem with the study of Shinto and the training of priests as a private university, and in 1948, the Shinto Affairs Department was established to form a Shinto training organization.[43]
TheShinto Scholarship Association, which had been conducting Shinto courses, was also dissolved in 1946.[44] In July 1949, at a meeting of the Federation of Shinto Sects at the Kinko Grand Church of the Tenrikyo Tokyo Branch Office, it was decided that Shinto lectures would be held at the Shinto Training Department of Kokugakuin University on behalf of the Federation of Shinto Sects; this practice continued until 1966.[44] Holding the Shinto course promoted the university as a Shinto university that combined both Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto.[44] As of 1996, Kokugakuin University was said to be the only university with a course on Sect Shinto.[citation needed]
There are five main groups of Sect Shinto:[1]
Tenrikyo is now classified by the Agency for Cultural Affairs as one of the various religions, not as a Shinto denomination.[45]
The first independent denominations wereKurozumikyō andShinto Shusei in 1876 (Meiji 9).Jingūkyō was founded in 1882, but later reorganized into the Ise Shrine Offering Association[a][needs independent confirmation] in 1899 (Meiji 32).[46]
In 1895, eight denominations—Izumo Taisha-kyo,Kurozumikyō,Ontake-kyo,Jikkō kyō,Shinto Taiseikyo,Shinshu-kyo,Fuso-kyo, andJingūkyō—joined to form theShintō Dōshikai (lit. 'Society of Shinto Colleagues').[47][48][49] In 1899 (Meiji 32), the group was joined by Shinto Headquarters (Shinto Taikyo),Shinrikyo, andMisogikyo, and the name was changed toShintō Konwakai; the same year, Jingūkyō reorganized as Jingū Hōnsaikai and withdrew from the federation.[49] In 1912 (Meiji 45),Konkokyo,Shinto Shusei, andTenrikyo joined, forming 13 groups (14 if including the breakaway Jingūkyō), and the name was changed toShintō Kyōha Rengōkai.[47] In 1934, the current nameKyōha Shintō Rengōkai (教派神道連合会, Federation of Sectarian Shinto) was adopted.[47]
After World War II,Oomoto joined the federation, butTenrikyo andShinto Taiseikyo withdrew.Tensha Tsuchimikado Shinto was re-established after the war, but never joined the federation. Shinshu-kyo withdrew in 1959 but returned in 1994.[citation needed]
In 1995, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of its formation, the "100th Anniversary of the Formation of the Federation of Shinto Churches" was held.[50] In addition to Misogi-kyo, Shinto Taikyo, Jingūkyō, Konkokyo, Kurozumikyō, Fuso-kyo, Ontake-kyo, Shinrikyo, Oomoto, Shinshu-kyo, Shinto Shusei, Izumo Taisha-kyo, and twelve other denominations, the presidents of Tenrikyo andShinto Taiseikyo also attended.[50]
Today, the federation has 12 affiliated groups.[49]
| Denomination | Founder | Founding date | Independence date | Joined federation | Withdrew from federation | Followers[51] | Priests[51] | Shrines and churches[51] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kurozumikyō | Munetada Kurozumi [ja] | 1846[52] | October 1876 | 1895 | — | 297,351 | 1,312 | 307 |
| Shinto Shusei | Nitta Kuniteru | 1849[53] | 1912 | — | 8,084 | 213 | 52 | |
| Jingūkyō (disestablished 1946) | Yoritsune Tanaka [ja] | 1882 | May 1882 | 1895 | 1899 | —[c] | — | — |
| Izumo-taishakyo | Senge Takatomi | 1882[54] | 1895 | — | 1,266,058 | 8,212 | 161 | |
| Fuso-kyo | Shishino Nakaba [ja] | 1895 | — | 31,150 | 425 | 135 | ||
| Jikkō kyō | Hanamori Shibata [ja] | 1895 | — | 10,910 | 250 | 87 | ||
| Shinto Taiseikyo | Hirayama Seisai | 1882 | 1895 | 1976[47] | 21,515 | 173 | 30 | |
| Shinshu-kyo | Masatsugu Yoshimura [ja] | 1895 | — | 126,181 | 203 | 93 | ||
| Ontake-kyo | Osuke Tsuda [ja] | September 1882 | 1895 | — | 42,550 | 1,119 | 346 | |
| Shinto Taikyo | Inaba Masakuni | 1872[d] | January 1886 | 1899 | — | 21,375 | 470 | 163 |
| Shinrikyo | Tsunehiko Sano [ja] | 1880[55][56] | October 1894 | 1899 | — | 67,248 | 938 | 139 |
| Misogikyo | Masakane Inoue [ja] | 1899 | — | 78,675 | 482 | 61 | ||
| Konkokyo | Konkō Daijin [ja] | November 15, 1859[57] | June 1900 | 1912 | — | 397,461 | 3,521 | 1,484 |
| Tenrikyo | Nakayama Miki | 1838[58] | November 1908 | 1912 | 1970[47] | 2,000,000[e][59] | ||
| Tensha Tsuchimikado Shinto | Abe no Seimei | 1953 | — | — | 50,000[60] | |||
| Oomoto | Nao Deguchi | 1892[61] | 1956 | 1956 | — | 166,367 | 4,280 | 715 |
| Total (sensuo stricto) | — | — | — | — | — | 2,534,925[51] | 21,598[51] | 3,773[51] |
| Total (sensuo lacto) | — | — | — | — | — | 4,584,925 |
Kurozumikyō (黒住教) is a group highly linked toAmaterasu.
Shinto Shusei (神道修成派) is considered a form ofConfucian Shinto.[45][62][1] It was founded in 1849 byNitta Kuniteru (1829–1902),[53] who was known to have read theAnalects at age 9.[53] He founded the sect at age 20,[53] and considered Japanese people to be descendants of deities.[53] He considered allegiance to theEmperor of Japan to be central to his philosophy; he was a supporter ofSonnō jōi but supported theBoshin Rebellion and theMeiji Restoration later.[53]
AlongsideKurozumikyō, it was one of the first two Shinto sects to gain independence in 1876.[46] It has not been very active in the postwar era.[63]
Jingūkyō (神宮教) was a sect run out ofIse Grand Shrine which distributedJingu Taima. It was a rival toIzumo-taishakyo and eventually left the federation and came to dominateState Shinto.
Izumo-taishakyo was founded bySenge Takatomi.[54][64] and has 1,266,058 followers.[51] It is aFukko Shinto lineage and at one point was a major rival withJingūkyō.
Fusō-kyō (扶桑教) is amountain worship sect traditionally seen to have been founded byHasegawa Kakugyo (who was also associated with Jikkō kyō).[65]
Jikkō kyō (実行教) is amountain worship sect traditionally seen to have been founded byHasegawa Kakugyo (who was also associated with Fusō-kyō).[65]
Shinto Taiseikyo (神道大成教) is aConfucian Shinto sect[62][1] founded byHirayama Seisai.
Shinshu-kyo (神習教) is a "purification sect" alongsideMisogikyo.[1]
It was founded by Masaki Yoshimura[66] (1839–1915[67]), who was a survivor of theAnsei Purge.[68] He worked atIse Jingu and later was head ofTatsuta Shrine, but due to laws restricting teaching, he entrusted his children toItō Hirobumi (before he became Prime Minister) and established a new branch based on his family traditions.[69]
Ontake-kyo (御嶽教) is amountain worship sect dedicated toMount Ontake.[70] It had 3 million members in 1930,[71] which decreased to around 40,000 members in 2020.[51]
Shintō Taikyō (神道大教) is the direct successor to theTaikyo Institute. Its name "Taikyo" refers to theThree Great Teachings first proclaimed in theProclamation of the Great Doctrine.[72]
Shinrikyo (神理教,lit. 'divine principle') is a Shinto sect considered to be part of theFukko Shinto lineage of Sect Shinto, alongsideShinto Taikyo andIzumo-taishakyo.[45] The name "Shinrikyo" is relatively common among Shinto groups,[73] and uses differentkanji characters thanAum Shinrikyo, a cult and terrorist organization.
It was founded byTsunehiko Sano [ja][73][56] in 1880.[55][56] Sano had previously studied medicine and was an advocate of traditional Japanese medicine. He studiedkokugaku in his youth under Nishida Naokai.[74][75]
Sano's thought blurred the lines between monotheism and polytheism, enteringtranstheism.[73] His concept ofkami was aimed at resisting the propagation of Christianity while composing teachings that were in line with the aims of popular national indoctrination. His core elements of the concept ofkami did not change throughout his life.[73]
He believed the etymology ofkami was derived from vital force (Ikimochi). He saw this as emphasizing the interconnectedness of everything, from humans to nature, and as such this could be interpreted as a monotheistic view.[73] He saw all thekami as unified under a divine principle, hence the name of the group.[73]
Misogikyo (禊教,lit. 'Misogi religion') is considered a "purification sect" alongsideShinshu-kyo.[1]
The group is quite obscure today.[76] It is very ritual-focused, with little theoretical theology. In this way, it contrasts withYoshida Shinto.[76] It emphasizes right state of mind and self-control.[76] It has influence fromConfucian Shinto but is its own tradition.[76]
Konkōkyō (金光教,Konkō-kyō) is a group often considered to be its own religion, which emerged fromShinbutsu-shūgō.
Tenrikyo (天理教,Tenrikyō, sometimes rendered as 'Tenriism') is a Sect Shinto group founded byNakayama Miki. It is often considered a separate religion from Shinto.
In theEdo period, the Tsuchimikado family, descendants ofAbe no Seimei, establishedTensha Tsuchimikado Shinto influenced byConfucian Shinto throughSuika Shinto. However, because of the inclusion of fortune-telling and magic, the Meiji government considered it pagan and issued theTensha Shinto Prohibition Ordinance [ja]. After the war, it was restored as "Tensha Tsuchimikado Shinto Headquarters", and registered as areligious corporation rather than a Sect Shinto or a Shinto shrine.[citation needed]
Oomoto (大本,Ōmoto,lit. 'Great Source, or Great Origin') is often seen as a new religion.
New Sect Shinto (shin kyoha Shinto)[77] is a subset of Sect Shinto,[78] and consists of numerous organizations.[79] It is influenced byBuddhism andConfucianism.[78]
It is part of the Sect Shinto movement not centering upon 13 sects.[80] New Shinto sects haveshamanistic leadership, syncretism of religious and philosophical beliefs, closely knit social organization, and individualism.[80] Some groups have characteristics ofmonotheism, in the extreme case making a compromise ofBuddhism,Confucianism, andfolk religion.[80]
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