Shia Muslims assert imamate continued through Ali's sonsHasan andHusayn, after whom different Shia branches have their own imams. They revere theahl al-bayt, the family of Muhammad, maintaining that they possess divine knowledge. Shia holy sites include theshrine of Ali inNajaf, theshrine of Husayn inKarbala and other mausoleums of theahl al-bayt. Later events such as Husayn's martyrdom in theBattle of Karbala (680 CE) further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory.[1]
The word Shia (orShīʿa) (/ˈʃiːə/) (Arabic:شيعيّ,romanized: shīʿī,pl. shīʿiyyūn) is derived fromشيعة علي,shīʿat ʿAlī, 'followers of Ali'.[3][4][5] Shia Islam is also referred to in English as Shiism (or Shīʿism) (/ˈʃiːɪz(ə)m/), and Shia Muslims as Shiites (or Shīʿites) (/ˈʃiːaɪt/).[6]
The termShia was first used during Muhammad's lifetime.[7] At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of theMuslim community after Muhammad belongs toʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors.[8] Nawbakhti states that the termShia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as theImam andcaliph.[8][9]Al-Shahrastani expresses that the termShia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as theheir, Imam, and caliph by Muhammad[8][10] and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants.[8][11] For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in theQuran and thehistory of Islam. Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of theAbrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses3:33 and3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah choseAdam,Noah, the family ofAbraham, and the family of’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing."[12]
The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī,[13] and Shia theology was formulated after thehijra (8th century CE).[14] The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studiesLouis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[15]
The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" ofʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin andFatima's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during theFirst Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over theorigins of Shia Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.[16][17] Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.[18]
Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during a speech atGhadir Khumm.[19] The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as hismawla, has ʿAlī as hismawla".[8][20][21][22] Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy".[23] Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that the statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor.[8][24][25][26] Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him asAmir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers").[23]
When Muhammad died in 632 CE,ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body,Abū Bakr,ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, andAbu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the firstrāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) andʿUthmān (644–656).[19]
With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims ofMedina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source,[27] and he established his capital inKufa.[3] ʿAlī's rule over theearly Islamic empire, between 656 CE to 661 CE, was often contested.[19] Tensions eventually led to theFirst Fitna, the first majorcivil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī'skhilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him.[27] Tensions escalated into theBattle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious againstAisha,Talhah, andal-Zubayr. However, theBattle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues withMuawiyah, the governor of Damascus.[19] ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming theKharijis, a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer (sujud). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to the caliphate.[29][28]
Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder sonḤasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslimsupon certain conditions: Theenforced public cursing of ʿAlī, e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt the title ofAmir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor.[30][31] Ḥasan then retired toMedina, where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wifeJa'da bint al-Ash'ath, after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own sonYazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle.[32]
Battle of Karbala, painting by theIsfahan-based Persian artist Abbas Al-Mousavi,Brooklyn Museum (between 1868 and 1933)
Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his sonYazid, and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance (bay'ah) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa.[19]
En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, nearKarbala; rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In theBattle of Karbala, Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr (shahid), and count him as an Imam from theAhl al-Bayt. The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as thedefinitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam. Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam.[33] The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers is commemorated on theDay of Ashura, occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar.[19]
Zulfiqar with and without the shield. TheFatimid depiction of ʿAlī's sword is carved on the gates ofOld Cairo, namelyBab al-Nasr (shown below). Two swords were captured from the temple of thepre-Islamic Arabian deityManāt during theRaid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali. Muhammad gave them to ʿAlī, saying that one of them was "Zulfiqar", which became famously known as the sword of ʿAlī and a later symbol of Shīʿīsm.[34]Depiction of ʿAlī's sword and shield carved on theBab al-Nasr gate wall inIslamic Cairo,Egypt
Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, includingTwelvers andIsmāʿīlīs, becameImamis.[8][35][36] Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and politicalsuccessors to Muhammad.[37] Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and itsesoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen bydivine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[38][39] According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah.[37][40]
This difference between following either theAhl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped theShia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses,hadith literature (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to theIslamic prophetMuhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout thehistory of Islam. For instance, thehadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of theAhl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting theAhl al-Bayt are not included. Those ofAbu Hurairah, for example, Ibn Asakir in hisTaʿrikh Kabir, and Muttaqi in hisKanzuʿl-Umma report thatʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrateḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (AnArab clan inYemen, to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at theBattle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son,Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph.
It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam thatdivine wisdom (ʿaql) was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon themesoteric knowledge (ḥikmah), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.[41][42] Although the Imam was not the recipient of adivine revelation (waḥy), he had a close relationship withGod, through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people.Imamate, or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.[43]
In Shia Islam, ImamMahdi is regarded as theprophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before theDay of Judgment and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with theSecond Coming ofJesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against theMasih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered theMasih ("Messiah") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east ofDamascus, dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind.
In the century following theBattle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.
Buyids (934–1055 CE): aTwelverIranian dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of Iran and Iraq.
Uqaylids (990–1096 CE): a ShiaArab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts ofal-Jazira, northern Syria and Iraq.
Ilkhanate (1256–1335): aPersianateMongolkhanate established inIran in the 13th century, considered a part of theMongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, onGenghis Khan's campaigns in theKhwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson,Hulagu, in territories inWestern andCentral Asia which today comprise most of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic toBuddhism andChristianity. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning withGhazan in 1295, chose Islam as thestate religion; his brotherÖljaitü promoted Shia Islam.[44]
Bahmanids (1347–1527): a Shia Muslim state of theDeccan Plateau inSouthern India, and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms.[45] Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic kingdom in Southern India.[46]
Fatimids (909–1171 CE): Controlled much ofNorth Africa, theLevant, parts ofArabia, and the holy cities ofMecca andMedina. The group takes its name fromFāṭimah, Muhammad's daughter, from whom they claim descent.
The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnīs and Shias that existed from the time of theMongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
Initial dependence ofShīʿīte clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body ofulama capable of taking a political stand different from official policies.[53]
The growth in importance ofPersian centers of Islamic education and religious learning, which resulted in the change of Twelver Shīʿīsm from being a predominantlyArab phenomenon to become predominantlyPersian.[54]
The growth of theAkhbari school of thought, which taught that only theQuran,ḥadīth literature, andsunnah (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to theIslamic prophetMuhammad during his lifetime) are to be bases for verdicts, rejecting the use of reasoning.
With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Iran—including the state system of courts with government-appointedjudges (qāḍī)—became much weaker. This gave thesharīʿa courts ofmujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled theulama to assert their judicial authority. TheUsuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time.[55]
Shīʿa Muslims believe that just as aprophet is appointed byGod alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God choseʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor and the firstcaliph (Arabic:خليفة,romanized: khalifa) of Islam. Shīʿa Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command on several instances, but most notably atEid Al Ghadir.[58][59] Additionally, ʿAlī was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter,Fāṭimah.[27][28]
The Shīʿīte version of theShahada (Arabic:الشهادة), the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of theSunnīs.[60] The Sunnī version of theShahada statesLa ilaha illallah, Muhammadun rasulullah (Arabic:لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا الله مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ الله,lit. 'There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God'), but in addition to this declaration of faith Shīʿa Muslims add the phraseAli-un-Waliullah (Arabic:علي ولي الله,lit. 'Ali is the friend of God'). The basis for the Shīʿīte belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as theWali of God is derived from the Qur'anic verse5:55.
This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shīʿīte emphasis on the inheritance of authority throughMuhammad's family and lineage. The three clauses of the Shīʿīte version of theShahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs ofTawḥīd (Arabic:تَوْحِيد,lit. 'oneness of God'),Nubuwwah (Arabic:نبوة,lit. 'prophethood'), andImamah (Arabic:إمامة,lit. 'Imamate or leadership').[61]
Ismah (Arabic:عِصْمَة,romanized: 'Iṣmah or 'Isma,lit. 'protection') is the concept ofinfallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam.[62] Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with theother prophets and messengers, possessedismah.Twelver andIsmāʿīlī Shīʿa Muslims also attribute the quality toImams as well as toFāṭimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to theZaydī Shīʿas, who do not attributeismah to the Imams.[63] Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm.[64]
According toShīʿa Muslim theologians, infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that sinceGod has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shīʿīte interpretation of theverse of purification.[65][66] Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness.[67] It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing asin, but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin.[62]
They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by theangels (Arabic:ملائِكة,romanized: malāʾikah) to the prophets (Arabic:أنبياء,romanized: anbiyāʼ) and the messengers (Arabic:رُسل,romanized: rusul). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters.[68] Shi'a Muslims regardʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as thesuccessor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entireMuslim community in justice, but also in interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a "perfect man" (Arabic:الإنسان الكامل,romanized: al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shīʿīte perspective.[69]
TheOccultation is aneschatological belief held in various denominations of Shīʿa Islam concerning amessianic figure, the hidden and last Imam known as "theMahdi", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine ofTwelver Shīʿīsm, the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish anIslamic state and to applyIslamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shīʿa Islam.[70] SomeShīʿa subsects, such as theZaydī Shīʿas andNizārī Ismāʿīlīs, do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.
Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff ofMoses, the ring ofSolomon, son ofDavid, and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought.[74]
Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving theImamat (leadership), similar to how theArk of Covenant in the house of theIsraelites signaled prophethood.[74] ImamAli al-Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge (Imamat).[74]
Other doctrines
Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge
According toMuhammad Rida al-Muzaffar, God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect.[75][76]
Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While allMuslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combiningDhuhr withAsr andMaghrib withIsha', as there are three distinct times mentioned in theQuran. The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances.
Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of theHajj or pilgrimage to Mecca
Eid al-Ghadeer, which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's Imamate before a multitude of Muslims.[77] Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
TheMourning of Muharram and theDay of Ashura for Shia Muslims commemorate the martyrdom ofḤusayn ibn ʿAlī, brother ofḤasan and grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by the army of Yazid ibn Muawiyah inKarbala (central Iraq). Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th ofMuharram.
Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī's household. After Ḥusayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arbaein occurs on the 20th ofSafar, 40 days after Ashura.
Mawlid, Muhammad's birth date. Unlike Sunnī Muslims, who celebrate the 12th ofRabi' al-awwal as Muhammad's day of birth or death (because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week), Shia Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday on the 17th of the month, which coincides with the birth date ofJaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the6th Shīʿīte Imam.[78]
Fāṭimah's birthday on 20th ofJumada al-Thani. This day is also considered as the "'women and mothers' day"[79]
Laylat al-Qadr, anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran.
Eid al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between theAhl al-Bayt (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
Shia orthodoxy, particularly inTwelver Shi'ism, has considered non-Muslims as agents ofimpurity (Najāsat). This categorization sometimes extends tokitābῑ, individuals belonging to thePeople of the Book, withJews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars.[85][86][87]Armenians in Iran, who have historically played a crucial role in theIranian economy, received relatively more lenient treatment.[86]
Shi'ite theologians andmujtahids (jurists), such asMuḥammad Bāqir Majlisῑ, held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors.Ayatollah Khomeini,Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions, is impure. However, the current leader of Iran,ʿAlī Khameneʾī, stated in afatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity.[85][88][87]
Shia Muslims form a distinct majority of the population in three countries of theMuslim world:Iran,Iraq, andAzerbaijan.[95][96] Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of theMiddle East.[97]
Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions ofWest Sumatra andAceh in Indonesia (seeTabuik).[110] The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantlyShāfiʿī Sunnīs.
Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by thePew Research Center report,Mapping the Global Muslim Population.[92][93]
Azerbaijan is majority Shia.[117][118][119] A 2012 work noted that in Azerbaijan, among believers of all faiths, 10% identified as Sunni, 30% identified as Shia, and the remainder of followers of Islam simply identified as Muslim.[119]
A reliable census has not been taken in Afghanistan in decades, but about 20% of Afghan population is Shia, mostly among ethnicTajik andHazara minorities.[120]
Estimates range from as low as 2% of Nigeria's Muslim population to as high as 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population.[b] Some, but not all, Nigerian Shia are affiliated with the bannedIslamic Movement in Nigeria, an Iranian-inspired Shia organization led byIbrahim Zakzaky.[122]
Among Kuwait's estimated 1.4 million citizens, about 30% are Shia (includingIsmaili andAhmadi, whom the Kuwaiti government count as Shia). AmongKuwait's large expatriate community of 3.3 million noncitizens, about 64% are Muslim, and among expatriate Muslims, about 5% are Shia.[124]
The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are theTwelvers, followed by theZaydīs and theIsmāʿīlīs. Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow the same school of thought, theJaʽfari jurisprudence, named afterJaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the6th Shīʿīte Imam.Shīʿīte clergymen andjurists usually carry the title ofmujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam).
Twelver Shīʿīsm orIthnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam,[127][90][128][129][130][131] and the termsShia Muslim andShia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designationTwelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as "the Twelve Imams". Twelver Shia are otherwise known asImami orJaʿfari; the latter term derives fromJaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the6th Shīʿīte Imam, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence.[132] Twelver Shia constitute the majority of the population inIran (90%),[133]Azerbaijan (85%),[3][134]Bahrain (70%),Iraq (65%), andLebanon (65% of Muslims).[135] Significant populations also exist in Afghanistan,Bahrain andLebanon.[136]
Doctrine
Twelver doctrine is based onfive principles.[59] These five principles known asUsul ad-Din are as follow:[137]
Besides theQuran, which is thesacred text common to all Muslims, Twelver Shias derive scriptural and authoritative guidance fromcollections of sayings and traditions (hadith) attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books:
According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is aninfallible human individual who not only rules over theMuslim community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret thedivine law (sharīʿa) and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error andsin, and Imams must be chosen bydivine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[38][39] The twelfth and final Imam isHujjat Allah al-Mahdi, who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden inOccultation.[43]
The Twelver jurisprudence is calledJaʽfari jurisprudence. In thisschool of Islamic jurisprudence, thesunnah is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams. There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, andShaykhi; the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence includeAlevis,Bektashi, andQizilbash.
Khums (20% tax on savings yearly, after deduction of commercial expenses).
According to Twelvers, defining and interpretation ofIslamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Since the12th Imam is currently inOccultation, it is the duty ofShīʿīte clerics to refer to theIslamic literature, such as theQuran andhadith, and identify legal decisions within the confines ofIslamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective. In other words, clergymen in Twelver Shīʿīsm are believed to be the guardians offiqh, which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors. This process is known asijtihad and the clerics are known asmarjaʿ, meaning "reference"; the labelsAllamah andAyatollah are in use for Twelver clerics.
Ismāʿīlīs, otherwise known asSevener, derive their name from their acceptance ofIsmāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imam) toJaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the6th Shīʿīte Imam, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who recognizeMūsā al-Kāẓim, younger brother of Ismāʿīl, as the true Imam.
After the death or Occultation ofMuhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl in the 8th century CE, the teachings of Ismāʿīlīsm further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning (bāṭin) of the Islamic faith. With the eventual development of Twelver Shīʿīsm into the more literalistic(zahīr) oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shīʿīsm further developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismāʿīlī group focusing on themystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing ondivine law (sharī'ah) and thedeeds and sayings (sunnah) attributed to Muhammad andhis successors (theAhl al-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and alight (nūr) to God.[145]
Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismāʿīlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Shia Imami IsmāʿīlīNizārī community, often referred to as theIsmāʿīlīs by default, who are followers of theAga Khan and the largest group within Ismāʿīlīsm. Another Shia Imami Ismāʿīlī community are theDawudi Bohras, led by aDa'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") as representative of a hidden Imam. While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imams. In recent centuries, Ismāʿīlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community,[146] but they can also be found inIndia,Pakistan,Syria,Palestine,Saudi Arabia,[147]Yemen,Jordan,Uzbekistan,Tajikistan,Afghanistan,East andSouth Africa, and in recent years several Ismāʿīlīs have emigrated toChina,[148]Western Europe (primarily in theUnited Kingdom),Australia,New Zealand, andNorth America.[149]
In theNizārīIsmāʿīlī interpretation of Shia Islam, theImam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God, and the individual through whom God is recognized. He is also responsible for theesoteric interpretation of the Quran (taʾwīl). He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the "Prime Teacher". According to the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian Ismāʿīlī prose text from the post-Mongol period of Ismāʿīlī history, by an anonymous author, there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time, and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time. The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterruptedchain of Imams. The proof (hujja) and gate (bāb) of theImam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain.[150]
After the death ofIsmāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar, many Ismāʿīlīs believed that one day theeschatological figure of ImamMahdi, whom they believed to beMuhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violentQarmatians, who had a stronghold inBahrain. In contrast, some Ismāʿīlīs believed the Imamatedid continue, and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network ofDa'i ("Missionaries").
In 909 CE,Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismāʿīlī Imamate, established theFatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of Imams were formed. The first branch, known today as theDruze, began withAl-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh.[151] Born in 985 CE, he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismāʿīlīsm and did not acknowledge his successor.[151] Later to be known as the Druze, they believe Al-Ḥākim to be God incarnate[152] and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth, who would one day return and bring justice to the world.[153] The Druze faith further split from Ismāʿīlīsm as it developed into a distinctmonotheisticAbrahamic religion andethno-religious group with its own unique doctrines,[151] and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether.[151] Thus, the Druze do not identify themselves as Muslims,[151] and are not considered as such by Muslims either.[151][154][155][156][157]
The second split occurred betweenNizārī andMusta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE. His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire. Upon his death, his sons,Nizār (the older) andAl-Musta‘lī (the younger), fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to the Nizārī tradition his son escaped toAlamut, where theIranian Ismāʿīlī had accepted his claim.[158] From here on, the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī community has continued with a present, living Imam.
TheMusta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs split between theṬayyibi and theḤāfiẓi; Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs, also known as "Bohras", are further divided betweenDawudi Bohras,Sulaymani Bohras, andAlavi Bohras. The former denomination claims thatAt-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, son ofAl-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity (Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed aDa'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismāʿīlīs had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl. The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.
Pillars
Ismāʿīlīs have categorized their practices which are known asseven pillars:
TheNizārīs place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, the current Imam is Karim al-HusayniAga Khan IV. The Nizārī line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain.
Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Missionary" (Da'i). According to the Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructedAl-Hurra Al-Malika theMalika (Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—theDa'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary"), who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage ofMusta‘lī-Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs (Dawudi Bohras,Sulaymani Bohras, andAlavi Bohras) differ on who the current "Unrestricted Missionary" is.
Zaydism, otherwise known asZaydiyya or asZaydī Shīʿism, is a branch of Shia Islam named afterZayd ibn ʿAlī. Followers of the Zaydī school of jurisprudence are called Zaydīs or occasionallyFivers. However, there is also a group calledZaydī Wāsiṭīs who are Twelvers (see below). Zaydīs constitute roughly 42–47% of thepopulation of Yemen.[159][160]
Doctrine
The Zaydīs, Twelvers, and Ismāʿīlīs all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaydīs considerZayd ibn ʿAlī as the 5th Imam. After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, the Zaydīs believed thatany descendant (Sayyid) ofḤasan ibn ʿAlī orḤusayn ibn ʿAlī could become the next Imam, after fulfilling certain conditions.[161] Other well-known Zaydī Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd,Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.
TheZaydī doctrine of Imamah does not presuppose the infallibility of the Imam, nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance. Moreover, Zaydīs do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by anySayyid descended from eitherḤasan ibn ʿAlī orḤusayn ibn ʿAlī (as was the case after the death of the former). Historically, Zaydīs held that Zayd ibn ʿAlī was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led arebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action, and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAlī maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers.
TheIdrisids (Arabic:الأدارسة) were Arab[162]Zaydī Shias[163] whose dynasty, named after its first sultan,Idris I, ruled in the westernMaghreb from 788 to 985 CE. Another Zaydī State was established in the region ofGilan,Deylaman, andTabaristan (northernIran) in 864 CE by theAlavids;[164] it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of theSamanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later, the Zaydī State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydī Shias of Deylaman, Gilan, and Tabaristan then acknowledged the ZaydīImams of Yemen or rival Zaydī Imams within Iran.[165]
TheBuyids were initially Zaydī Shias,[166] as were theBanu Ukhaidhir rulers ofal-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.[167] The leader of the Zaydī community took the title ofcaliph; thus, the ruler of Yemen was known by this title. Al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi, a descendant ofḤasan ibn ʿAlī, founded the Zaydī Imamate atSa'dah in 893–897 CE, and theRassid dynasty continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century, when therepublican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydī Imam. (See:Arab Cold War). The founding Zaydī branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya; however, with increasing interaction with theḤanafī andShāfiʿī schools ofSunnī jurisprudence, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya, and Salihiyya.[168] Zaydī Shias form thesecond dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen; Jaʿfaris and Ismāʿīlīs constitute the 2–5%.[169] InSaudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydī Shias, primarily based in the western provinces.
Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunnī rulers perceived the Shias as a threat—both to their political and religious authority.[183] The Sunnī rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shia minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. Thepersecution of Shia Muslims throughout history by their Sunnī co-religionists has often been characterized bybrutal andgenocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of theglobal Muslim population,[90] Shia Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunnī-dominantArab countries, and are denied the rights to practice their religion and freely organize.[184]
During the rule ofSaddam Hussein'sBa'athist Iraq, Shia political activists were arrested, tortured, expelled or killed, as part of a crackdown launched after an assassination attempt against Iraq's Deputy Prime MinisterTariq Aziz in 1980.[188][189] In March 2011, theMalaysian government declared Shia Islam a "deviant" sect and banned Shia Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims, but left them free to practice it themselves privately.[190][191]
^A 2019Council on Foreign Relations article states: "Nobody really knows the size of the Shia population in Nigeria. Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria's population, which would amount to roughly four million."[122] A 2019 BBC News article said that "Estimates of [Nigerian Shia] numbers vary wildly, ranging from less than 5% to 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population of about 100 million."[123]
Citations
^Armajani, Jon (2020).Shia Islam and Politics: Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. Lanham, MD: Lexington. p. 11.ISBN978-1-7936-2136-8.
^Francis Robinson,Atlas of the Islamic World, p. 23.
^Jafri, S.H. Mohammad. "The Origin and Early Development of Shiʻa Islam", Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 6,ISBN978-0-19-579387-1
^abcdefgMartin, Richard C. (2003). "Shīʿa".Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. New York: Macmillan reference USA. pp. 621–624.ISBN978-0-02-865603-8.
^Newman, Andrew J.Shiʿi. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved28 December 2021.
^Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam". Oxford University Press, 2002 |ISBN978-0-19-515713-0. p. 40
^abcdMerriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Wendy Doniger, Consulting Editor, Merriam-Webster, Inc., Springfield, MA 1999,ISBN0-87779-044-2, LoC: BL31.M47 1999, p. 525
^abc"Esposito, John. "What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam" Oxford University Press, 2002.ISBN978-0-19-515713-0. p. 46
^The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1998,ISBN0-85229-663-0, Vol. 10, p. tid738
^Madelung, Wilfred (2003)."Ḥasan b. ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb".Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
^Discovering Islam: making sense of Muslim history and society (2002) Akbar S. Ahmed
^Mustafa, Ghulam (1968).Religious trends in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. p. 11. Archived fromthe original on 6 September 2015.Similarly, swords were also placed on the Idols, as it is related that Harith b. Abi Shamir, the Ghassanid king, had presented his two swords, called Mikhdham and Rasub, to the image of the goddess, Manat....to note that the famous sword of Ali, the fourth caliph, called Dhu-al-Fiqar, was one of these two swords
^Goldziher, I.; van Arendonk, C.; Tritton, A.S. (2012). "Ahl al- Bayt". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).Ahl al-BMatt.Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0378.
^Ansari, N.H.Bahmanid Dynasty. Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 19 October 2006.
^Pollard, Elizabeth (2015).Worlds Together Worlds Apart. New York: W.W. Norton Company Inc. p. 313.ISBN978-0-393-91847-2.
^Chodorow, Stanley; Knox, MacGregor; Shirokauer, Conrad; Strayer, Joseph R.;Gatzke, Hans W. (1994).The Mainstream of Civilization. Harcourt Press. p. 209.ISBN978-0-15-501197-7.The architect of his military system was a general named Jawhar, an islamicized Greek slave who had led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt
^Fossier, Robert; Sondheimer, Janet; Airlie, Stuart; Marsack, Robyn (1997).The Cambridge illustrated history of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. p. 170.ISBN978-0-521-26645-1.When the Sicilian Jawhar finally entered Fustat in 969 and the following year founded the new dynastic capital, Cairo, 'The Victorious', the Fatimids ...
^Saunders, John Joseph (1990).A History of Medieval Islam. Routledge. p. 133.ISBN978-0-415-05914-5.Under Muʼizz (955-975) the Fatimids reached the height of their glory, and the universal triumph of Isma ʻilism appeared not far distant. The fourth Fatimid Caliph is an attractive character: humane and generous, simple and just, he was a good administrator, tolerant and conciliatory. Served by one of the greatest generals of the age, Jawhar al-Rumi, a former Greek slave, he took fullest advantage of the growing confusion in the Sunnite world.
^abAmir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (20 July 2005). Ehsan Yarshater (ed.)."Shiʻite Doctrine". Encyclopædia Iranica.Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved22 January 2019.
^Shiʻite Islam, by Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i (1979), pp. 41–44[ISBN missing]
^abcdAl-Kulayni, Abu Jaʼfar Muhammad ibn Yaʼqub (2015).Kitab al-Kafi. South Huntington, NY: The Islamic Seminary Inc.ISBN978-0-9914308-6-4.[page needed]
^Allamah Muhammad Rida Al Muzaffar (1989).The faith of Shia Islam. Ansariyan Qum. p. 1.
^Escobar, Pepe (24 May 2002)."Knocking on heaven's door".Central Asia/Russia.Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 3 June 2002. Retrieved12 November 2006.according to a famous hadith... 'our sixth imam, Imam Sadeg, says that we have five definitive holy places that we respect very much. The first is Mecca... second is Medina... third... is in Najaf. The fourth... in Kerbala. The last one belongs to... Qom.'
^abTsadik, Daniel (1 October 2010),"Najāsat",Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, Brill, retrieved8 January 2024
^abLitvak, Meir (2017).Constructing nationalism in Iran: from the Qajars to the Islamic Republic. Routledge studies in modern history. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 174.ISBN978-1-138-21322-7.
^abMoreen, Vera B. (1 October 2010),"Shiʽa and the Jews",Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, Brill, retrieved8 January 2024
^abc"Mapping the Global Muslim Population". 7 October 2009.Archived from the original on 14 December 2015. Retrieved10 December 2014.The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%.
^"Shīʿite".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved18 January 2022.In the early 21st century some 10–13 percent of the world's 1.6 billion Muslims were Shiʿi.
^Pintak, Lawrence (2019).America & Islam: Soundbites, Suicide Bombs and the Road to Donald Trump. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86.ISBN978-1-78831-559-3.
^Jonas, Margaret (2011).The Templar Spirit: The Esoteric Inspiration, Rituals and Beliefs of the Knights Templar. Temple Lodge Publishing. p. 83.ISBN978-1-906999-25-4.[Druze] often they are not regarded as being Muslim at all, nor do all the Druze consider themselves as Muslim
^J. Stewart, Dona (2008).The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives. Routledge. p. 33.ISBN978-1-135-98079-5.Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
^Daftary, Farhad (1998).A Short History of the Ismailis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 106–108.ISBN978-0-7486-0687-0.
^"About Yemen".Yemeni in Canada. Embassy of the Republic of Yemen in Canada. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2007. Retrieved9 April 2015.
^Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi,At-tarikh as-saghir 'an ash-shia al-yamaniyeen (Arabic: التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين, A short History of the Yemenite Shiʻites), 2005 Referencing: Iranian Influence on Moslem Literature
^Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi,At-tarikh as-saghir 'an ash-shia al-yamaniyeen (Arabic: التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين, A short History of the Yemenite Shiʻites), 2005 Referencing: Encyclopædia Iranica
^Walker, Paul Ernest (1999).Hamid Al-Din Al-Kirmani: Ismaili Thought in the Age of Al-Hakim. Ismaili Heritage Series. Vol. 3. London; New York: I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies. p. 13.ISBN978-1-86064-321-7.
^Article by Sayyid Ali ibn ' Ali Al-Zaidi,At-tarikh as-saghir 'an ash-shia al-yamaniyeen (Arabic: التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين, A short History of the Yemenite Shiʻites), 2005
^"Malaysia"(PDF).International Religious Freedom Report. United States Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. 2011.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved17 March 2014.
Martin, Richard C. (2004).Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 1:Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: A–L. MacMillan.ISBN978-0-02-865604-5.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
