Ashared universe orshared world is afictional universe from a set of creative works where one or more writers (or other artists) independently contribute works that can stand alone but fits into the joint development of the storyline, characters, or world of the overall project. It is common in genres likescience fiction.[1] It differs fromcollaborative writing in which multiple artists are working together on the same work and fromcrossovers where the works and characters are independent except for a single meeting.
The termshared universe is also used within comics to reflect the overall milieu created by the comic book publisher in which characters, events, and premises from one product line appear in other product lines in amedia franchise. A specific kind of shared universe that is published across a variety of media (such as novels and films), each of them contributing to the growth, history, and status of the setting is called an "imaginary entertainment environment".[2]
The term has also been used in a wider, non-literary sense to conveyinterdisciplinary[3] or social commonality,[4] often in the context of a "shared universe of discourse".[5]
Fiction in somemedia, such as mosttelevision programs and manycomic book titles, is understood by viewers or readers to require the contribution of multiple authors and does not by itself create a shared universe and is considered a collaborative art form. Incidental appearances, such as that ofd'Artagnan inCyrano de Bergerac, are considered literarycameo appearances. More substantial interaction between characters from different sources is often marketed as acrossover. While crossovers occur in a shared universe, not all crossovers are intended to merge their settings'back-stories and are instead used for marketing, parody, or to explore"what-if" scenarios, often being one-offs.[6][7]
It can become difficult for writers contributing to a shared universe to maintain consistency and avoid contradicting details in earlier works, especially when a shared universe grows to be very large. The version deemed "official" by the author or company controlling the setting is known ascanon. Not all shared universes have a controlling entity capable of or interested in determining canonicity, and not all fans agree with these determinations when they occur.[8] Afanon may instead find some degree of consensus within the setting'sfandom.[9]
Some writers, in an effort to ensure that a canon can be established and to keep details of the setting believable, employ tools to correct contradictions and errors that result from multiple contributors working over a long period of time. One such tool isretconning, short for "retroactive continuity", which resolves errors in continuity that came about through previously-written conflicting material.[10]
Readers may also object when a story or series is integrated into a shared universe, feeling it "requir[es] one hero's fans to buy other heroes' titles".[11]
Comics historianDon Markstein first defined the term in a 1970 article inCAPA-alpha. He laid out the following criteria:[12]
The expansion of existing material into a shared universe is not restricted to settings licensed from movies and television. For example,Larry Niven opened hisKnown Space setting to other writers initially because he considered his lack of military experience prevented him from adequately describing the wars between mankind and theKzinti.[13] The degree to which he has made the setting available for other writers became a topic of controversy, whenElf Sternberg created anerotic short story set in Known Space following an author's note from Niven indicating that "[i]f you want more Known Space stories, you'll have to write them yourself".[14] Niven has since clarified that his setting is still to be used only "under restricted circumstances and with permission",[15] which Niven granted to the several authors of theMan-Kzin Wars series. By contrast, authorEric Flint edited and published collaborations with fan fiction writers directly, expanding his1632 series.[16]
A setting may also be expanded in a similar manner after the death of its creator, although this posthumous expansion does not meet some strict definitions of a shared universe. One such example isAugust Derleth's development of theCthulhu Mythos from the writings ofH. P. Lovecraft, an approach whose result is considered by some to be "completely dissimilar" to Lovecraft's own works.[17] Less controversial posthumous expansions includeRuth Plumly Thompson's and later authors' sequels toL. Frank Baum'sOz stories and the further development ofIsaac Asimov'sFoundation universe byGreg Bear,Gregory Benford, andDavid Brin.[18]
Many other published works of this nature take the form of a series of short-storyanthologies with occasional standalone novels. Examples includeRobert Lynn Asprin'sThieves' World,[19]C. J. Cherryh'sMerovingen Nights[20] andJanet Morris'Heroes in Hell.[21]
Within comics, the termshared universe has been used to reflect the overall milieu created by the comic book publisher in which characters, events, and premises from one product line appear in other product lines in amedia franchise.
By 1961,Marvel Comics writer and editorStan Lee, working with artistsJack Kirby andSteve Ditko, merged the bulk of the publisher's comics characters into theMarvel Universe.[11] Marvel sets its stories in an increasing number ofalternate realities, each with an assigned number in a greater "multiverse".[22]DC Comics and Marvel have also periodically co-published series in which their respective characters meet and interact. Theseintercompany crossovers have typically been written as self-limiting events that avoid implying that the DC Universe and Marvel Universe co-exist. Exceptions include the twenty-four comics released under themetafictionalimprintAmalgam Comics in 1996, depicting a shared universe populated by hybridizations of the two companies' characters. Marvel has since referred to this as part of its setting's greater multiverse by labeling it Earth-692.[22]
Although DC and Marvel's shared universe approaches to comics have set them apart from competitors in the industry,[23] other companies have attempted similar models.Valiant Comics andCrossgen both produced titles primarily set from their inception in a single, publisher-wide shared universe, known respectively asUnity[24] and theSigilverse.[25]
Universes in films (or television) mostly consist of a franchise featuring an umbrella of multiple franchises (film or television) set within the same continuity, each franchise within telling its own stand-alone story focusing on a different character (or group of characters), as well as featuring its own cast, directors, and writers, while also being a part of a coherent, non-contradictory continuity shared with the other works. Fictional universes with major presence in films are referred to ascinematic universes, while fictional universes with major presence in television are referred to astelevision universes. Universes with major presence in both films and television are also generally called cinematic universes. Some film and television universes are accompanied by video games, and print works such as novels or comics, telling additional canonical stories set within the same continuity.
Following the filmsSon of Frankenstein (1939) andDracula's Daughter (1935), Universal began experimenting with transfictional storytelling with their horror films series throughout the early to mid 1940s.[26] This form was conceptualized by Richard Saint-Gelais who described it as when "two (or more) texts exhibit a transfictional relationship where they share elements, such as characters, imaginary locations, and fictional worlds."[27][28]
William Proctor inHorror Franchise Cinema (2021) wrote that Universal began transfictional storytelling by applying it to the film series, but these experiments were "not always conducted as carefully or as thoroughly as audiences, especially fans, would expect in contemporary terms".[29] This is seen in Universal'sFrankenstein films, theDracula films which are sequentially fragmented asSon of Dracula (1943) does not reference narratives or characters from eitherDracula (1931) orDracula's Daughter.[30] Following the release ofThe Wolf Man (1941) andThe Ghost of Frankenstein (1942), Universal releasedFrankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1942) which operated as a sequel to both films. Proctor suggested that theFrankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1942), the first crossover in film history, and the ensemble filmsHouse of Frankenstein (1944) andHouse of Dracula (1945) established the first "cinematic universe".[31]
Some universes in film have originated as film adaptations of novels, such as theJames Bond film series based on the spy novels byIan Fleming. The films adapt some elements from the novels; however, they are not direct adaptations, nor were they adapted in the same order as the books were released. The first film in the series isDr. No (1962), followed by 24 sequels, with the most recent beingNo Time to Die (2021). Due to the series spanning more than 50 years,James Bond has been portrayed by six actors, and other recurring characters have also been portrayed by multiple actors. After all of Fleming's Bond novels were adapted, the series shifted towards original scripts. However, all films are set within a single, coherent fictional continuity, even if the writers, directors and cast change between films. Aspects of the fictional universe are retained between films.[32]
ThePlanet of the Apes film series also originated as a film adaptation of the novel of the same name, taking many creative liberties. The original film titledPlanet of the Apes (1968) focused on present-day astronaut George Taylor landing on a mysterious planet ruled by apes, which is revealed to be a future planet Earth at the end of the film. The sequelBeneath focused on Brent, an astronaut sent on a rescue mission to save Taylor. The third filmEscape introducedtime travel and shifted the focus towards the apes Zira and Cornelius, who appeared as supporting characters in the previous films, as they travel to the past in Taylor's spaceship. The fourth and fifth films,Conquest andBattle, focus on Zira and Cornelius' son Caesar leading the uprising against the humans and to the future depicted in the original film. A television series and an animated series are also considered part of the story.[33] The origin of thePlanet of the Apes in the original timeline before the time travel occurred was explained in a prequel-reboot film series with the ape Cesar becoming the main protagonist again, with the story focused on his life from childhood to an old ape, and how the conflict between the apes and the humans started.[34]
TheStar Wars film series was created byGeorge Lucas, produced by his self-funded production company Lucasfilm. It originated with the filmStar Wars (1977), followed by two sequelsThe Empire Strikes Back (1980) andReturn of the Jedi (1983); together, those three films are known as the original trilogy and focuses onLuke Skywalker,Han Solo andPrincess Leia. The prequel trilogy composed ofStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace (1999),Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), andStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005) expanded the series into a Saga, and focused on Luke Skywalker's fatherAnakin Skywalker, new cast members portrayed younger versions of characters from the original trilogy, while other actors returned to their original trilogy roles.
On television, the lore was expanded through animation, the animated film titledStar Wars: The Clone Wars (2008) served as the pilot of ananimated series of the same name (2008–2014, 2020). Lucas was deeply creatively involved in the previously mentioned works, but he ceased creative involvement with theStar Wars franchise in 2014. Lucasfilm announced that from April 2014, only such previously mentioned works would be considered canonical, along with all of the fictional works released after such date. The animated seriesStar Wars Rebels (2014–2018), was the first work released after. A sequel trilogy formed byStar Wars: The Force Awakens (2015),Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017) andStar Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019) featured many returning cast members along with newcomers. The films' main saga is conformed of the original, prequel, and sequel trilogies. A concurrent spin-off film series, known as the anthology films, expands the stories of plot points and characters from the main series.
Additionally theStar Wars series expanded into video games, comics, novels, short stories, animated series, and RPG adventures, telling original stories based on the franchise.This classified it as an imaginary entertainment environment, where the films shared the samecontinuity as all the other media formats — until Disney’s 2014 decision to change the canon of the shared universe.[35][36] Lucasfilm's early teams under Carol Wakarska (later Titleman), Lucy Wilson, Allan Kausch, Sue Rostoni, and later, Leland Chee and Pablo Hidalgo, coordinated a cohesive story-telling and ensured consistency and synergy by avoiding plot holes between all the film and non-film works. TheStar Wars Legends brand is now used to brand all the re-prints of these Expanded Universe works (television films, animated series, video-games, comics, and novels) of the franchise which were produced and/or ceased production before April 2014. Lucas praised these expansions of his work in the introduction to the reprintedSplinter of the Mind's Eye, and included a few elements within his works, such as characters and places. Storytellers after Lucas have also incorporatedLegends elements in their stories.[37]
There are three cinematic universes based onMarvel Comics characters, all set within a different continuity. TheX-Men film series, beginning withX-Men (2000) and concluding withThe New Mutants (2020), was the longest-running superhero film franchise to be set within the same continuity. The on-goingMarvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), which began withIron Man (2008), has the mostfilms, as well asmultiple TV shows and a separate run oftie-in comics that share the samemultiversal continuity. FollowingDisney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, theX-Men film universe was incorporated into the MCU multiverse.[38]Sony's Spider-Man Universe centers on characters related toSpider-Man whose rights are owned bySony Pictures. It has also crossed over with the MCU, beginning withVenom: Let There Be Carnage (2021) andSpider-Man: No Way Home (2021).
Following the success of the MCU, other studios attempted to replicate its success.[39] TheDC Extended Universe (DCEU) is a shared universe that encompasses different film franchises based onDC Comics characters, all of them sharing a continuity. In 2024, it was replaced by theDC Universe (DCU).[40]
In horror,Forbes andThe Hollywood Reporter describedThe Conjuring as the first successful cinematic universe after Marvel's universe, and as of 2022[update] the second most-successful after it.[41][42]
Writer/directorKevin Smith created a fictional universe used in several of his films, as well as comics and a television series: theView Askewniverse,[43] which is named for Smith's production company,View Askew Productions. The charactersJay and Silent Bob (played by Smith) appear in almost all the View Askewniverse media, and characters from one story often reappear or are referred to in others. Recurring characters, settings, and motifs of the View Askewniverse first appeared in Smith's debut film,Clerks, in 1994.
A cinematic universe consisting of films whose titles are the names of songs bySimon and Garfunkel was proposed and publicly discussed by movie creators in 2017.[44] FilmmakerEdgar Wright wrote that the Simon and Garfunkel cinematic universe could begin with his movieBaby Driver andMarc Webb'sThe Only Living Boy in New York, and Wright suggested creation of a film namedSo Long, Frank Lloyd Wright.[45] Subsequently, other writers, directors, and actors expressed their interest in making films within the universe, such asRian Johnson:Keep the Customer Satisfied;Lin-Manuel Miranda:Cecilia; Marc Webb andDwayne Johnson:I Am a Rock.[46]
This refers to universes that are based on television shows without any films. Television series may lead to aspin-off series set in the same universe, often focusing on a single character from the original. The American sitcomCheers led to two spin-off series,Frasier andThe Tortellis.
An example of shared universes among television shows is theTommy Westphall Universe Hypothesis, which suggests that hundreds of American television series take place in the same universe. It builds from the assumption that when an actor playing a character from one series guest-stars in a second series, in character, both of those series must take place in the same universe. The theory takes its name from a character in the final episode ofSt. Elsewhere, where the common interpretation of the events of that finale is that the entireSt. Elsewhere universe – including all connected series – exist only within Westphall's imagination.[47]
Thespin-off media fromDoctor Who, known as the "Whoniverse", has relatively little consistency given its division intoaudio plays produced byBig Finish and the BBC, theNew Adventures universe novel, or a universe based on comics published inDoctor Who Magazine and other publications.[48]
Television networkThe CW broadcasts theArrowverse, a shared universe of television shows based on characters from DC Comics.[49] The CW also housesThe Vampire Diaries Universe, a shared universe of various interconnectedtelevision series;The Vampire Diaries,The Originals, andLegacies.[50][51][52][53]
TheMarvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) has had expanded into multiple interconnected television universes through shows produced byMarvel Television, such asMarvel's ABC television series,Marvel's Netflix television series,Marvel's young adult television series, and the plannedAdventure into Fear franchise.[54][55][56] After Marvel Television was folded intoMarvel Studios in December 2019,streaming television shows set in the MCU were developed forDisney+, beginning withWandaVision (2021).[57]
The concept of "universes" has also occasionally been discussed in the context ofreality television franchises (which, though documenting real-life individuals and situations, typically involve a significant amount ofproducer guidance).TLC reality series90 Day Fiancé has had a large number of spinoffs, which have aired both on TLC and on sibling streaming serviceDiscovery+; these have occasionally been referred to, by both parent companyWarner Bros. Discovery (WBD) and others, as a "universe".[58][59][60] In a 2022 investor presentation, WBD executives referenced the "90 Day Fiancé Universe" as being a core franchise for the company, on par withGame of Thrones and theDC Comics superheroes.[61]
TheMickey Mouse universe dates back to the 1930s when the animated cartoon was expanded into a newspaper strip. Although the characters occasionally portray other roles and with other names, the writers address this discrepancy by thinking of the characters as being "employed" by Disney as actors.Walt Disney, when asked whether or notMickey Mouse andMinnie Mouse were married, replied that the mice were indeed married in their "private life", but that they sometimes appeared as boyfriend and girlfriend for "screen purposes".[62] The Mickey Mouse universe also includes theDonald Duck universe as a subset.
The Pixar universe is an elaboratefan theory suggesting that allPixar animated movies take place in the same universe. At the 2015D23 Expo, during the "Pixar Secrets Revealed" panel, directorMark Andrews rejected the theory, withInside Out co-directorRonnie del Carmen adding "Do you know what kinds of meetings we'd have to have to make sure all our movies line up?!"[63]
TheDC Animated Universe (DCAU) is a television universe that encompasses different animated series based on characters from DC Comics but its associated media includes feature and short films, comic books and video games as well.
Shared timelines originate in video games and the internet. The influence of theInternet oncollaborative andinteractive fiction has also resulted in a large number of amateur shared universe settings. Amateur authors have created shared universes by contributing tomailing lists, storyarchives andUsenet. One of the earliest of these settings,SFStory, saw its spin-off settingSuperguy cited as illustrative of the potential of the Internet.[64] Another example is thefurry-themed Tales from the Blind Pig created at theTransformation Story Archive with some limited publication.[65][66] Other early examples include theDargon Project and Devilbunnies.[67]
The computer game seriesCommand and Conquer (since 1995) andRed Alert (since 1996) originally were set in the same universe, connected by character Kane, who had a cameo appearance inRed Alert. ThoughCommand and Conquer does not refer to the alternate timeline ofRed Alert, in whichHitler was removed before he came to power, what caused an Allied - Soviet world war instead. Furthermore, if the Allied campaign were to be completed, the Allies would emerge victorious and the timeline would lead into the events ofRed Alert 2, though the latter completely ignores anything that could connect it to the Tiberium timeline.[68][69]
The 2000 musicalSeussical presented several works ofDr. Seuss as taking place in the same fictional world.
Hasbro toy products includingG.I. Joe andTransformers are considered by their manufacturer to exist fictionally within theHasbro Universe. Related shared universes include theHasbro Comic Book Universe byIDW Publishing and theEnergon Universe bySkybound Entertainment.
In the music industry, all kinds of works by American singer-songwriterTaylor Swift, such asher songs,albums,music videos, films,tours, promotional activities, as well as the narratives surrounding her, have been collectively referred to as a musical or cinematic universe by several journalists and media outlets.[70][71][72]