Shanshan 鄯善 | |
|---|---|
| c. 77 BCE–c. 630 | |
 Tarim Basin in the 3rd century | |
| Status | Chinese vassal |
| Capital | Loulan |
| Common languages | Gandhari Prakrit (administrative) |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| Government | Monarchy |
| History | |
• Vassalage | c. 77 BCE |
• Abandonment | c. 630 |
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Shanshan (Chinese:鄯善;pinyin:Shànshàn;Uyghur:پىچان,romanized: Pichan,lit. 'Piqan') was a kingdom located at the north-eastern end of theTaklamakan Desert near the great, but now mostly dry, salt lake known asLop Nur.
The kingdom was originally an independent city-state, known in localGandhari documents asKroraïna (Krorayina, Kröran) – which is commonly rendered in Chinese asLoulan. TheWestern Han dynasty took direct control of the kingdom some time after 77 BCE, and it was later known in Chinese as Shanshan. The archaeologistJ. P. Mallory has suggested that the name Shanshan may be derived from the name of another city in the area,Cherchen (later known in Chinese asQiemo).[1][2] A local variety ofGandhari was used in the kingdom for administrative, literary, and epigraphic purposes.[3] Scholars such asThomas Burrow have suggested the local population might have spoke a hypotheticalTocharian C, as evidenced by the loanwords in those Gandhari documents.[4]
The kingdom of Kroraïna (Loulan), later Shanshan, was probably founded at a strategically located walled town, near the north-west corner of Lop Nur, next to the then outflow of the Tarim River into Lop Nur (40° 9’ N, 89° 5’ E). The site of Kroraïna covered about 10.8 hectares (27 acres) with a Buddhist pagoda about 10 metres (33 feet) high, numerous houses, and irrigation ditches.[5]
The kingdom included the city ofCharklik (near the modern town ofRuoqiang to the south-west of Lop Nur),Cherchen (laterQiemo), as well asNiya, further to the south-west.[6]
In 126 BCE, the Chinese envoy,Zhang Qian describedLoulan as a fortified city nearLop Nur.[8]
Because of its position on what became the main routes from China to the West, controlling both the Southern Route between Dunhuang and Khotan, and the mainSilk Route from Dunhuang toKorlaKucha andKashgar during theFormer Han andLater Han; control of the kingdom was regularly contested between the Chinese and theXiongnu. The Xiongnu repeatedly contested the Han Chinese for control of the region until well into the 2nd century CE.[9]
In 77 BCE, the Chinese envoyFu Jiezi was sent to kill the Loulan king, named Changgui or Angui (嘗歸 or 安歸), after several Han envoys were kidnapped and killed.[10] He arrived on the pretext of carrying gold and valuables to the outer states and intending to give a presentation to the king, but stabbed the Loulan king to death while he was drunk. The king's younger brother Weituqi (尉屠耆) was then installed as the king of Loulan by the Han ruler, and the kingdom was renamed Shanshan.[11]
The newly installed king requested the presence of Han forces in Yixun (伊循), due to his fear of retribution from the sons of the assassinated king in Loulan. Chinese army officers were therefore sent to colonise the area, and an office of commandant was established at Yixun.[12]
In 25 CE it was recorded that Shanshan was in league with the Xiongnu. In 73 AD, the Han army officerBan Chao went to Shanshan with a small group of followers, which was also receiving a delegation from the Xiongnu. Ban Chao killed the Xiongnu envoys and presented their heads to the King, after which King Guang of Shanshan offered his allegiance to Han.[13]
Loulan was later recorded as a dependent kingdom of Shanshan in the 3rd centuryWeilüe.[6]
An inscription in theKharoṣṭhī script was found atEndere, originally written around the middle of the 3rd century CE. The inscription describes the king of Shanshan as a follower ofMahāyāna Buddhism — one who has "set forth in the Great Vehicle."[14] The king whom this refers to was probably Aṃgoka, who was the most powerful king of Shanshan. According to Richard Salomon, there is every reason to believe that Mahāyāna Buddhism was prominent in Shanshan at this time and enjoyed royal patronage.[14]
More evidence of the official adoption of Mahāyāna Buddhism in Shanshan is seen in a letter inscribed in wood, which dates to several decades later. The letter describes the Great Cozbo Ṣamasena as one who is "beloved of men and gods, honoured by men and gods, blessed with a good name, who has set forth in the Mahāyāna."[15]
A military colony of 1,000 men was established at Loulan in 260 CE by the Chinese general Suo Mai (索勱). The site was abandoned in 330 CE due to a lack of water when theTarim River, which supported the settlement, changed course, and the military garrison was moved 50 km south to Haitou. The fort of Yingpan to the northwest remained under Chinese control until theTang dynasty.[16]
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Chinese rule continued into theWestern Jin dynasty and intermittently in later centuries. It was recorded that in 283 the son of the king was sent as a hostage to the Chinese court during the reign ofEmperor Wu ofJin dynasty.[19] In the 5th century, theNorthern Wei installed a Chinese king in Loulan and called the city the Shanshan Fort. Then at the end of the 6th century, theSui dynasty established the city state of Shanshan at Loulan.[20]
The Chinese pilgrim monk,Faxian, stayed about a month in Shanshan after a 17-day journey fromDunhuang in 399 CE. He described the country as "rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common people are coarse, and like those worn in our land ofHan, some wearing felt and others coarse serge or hair. ... The king professed (our) Law, and there might be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students of thehînâyana. ... (The monks) ...were all students of Indian books and the Indian language."[21]
From the 5th century onwards, however, the land was frequently invaded by nomads such asTuyuhuns, theRourans, and theDingling, and the area became gradually abandoned. In the spring of 442 CE, Loulan was invaded byJuqu Anzhou and its king fled toJumo (Cherchen),[22] and Shanshan then came to be ruled from Qiemo.[23]
At around 630 (at the beginning of the Tang dynasty), the remaining Shanshan people, led by Shanfutuo (鄯伏陁), migrated toHami in the Northern area.[20] The Buddhist pilgrimXuanzang passed through this region in 644 on his return from India to China, visited a town called Nafubo (納縛波, thought to be Charklik) of the Loulan country, and he also wrote ofQiemo: "A fortress exists, but not a trace of man".[24]
In 2011, the local government decided to undertake a large-scale development aimed at positioning Shanshan as "The Desert Tourism City" to attract a larger number of tourists to the area. Tourism and attraction development consultant Leisure Quest International (USA) was retained to develop a master plan and conceptual design for the development. The plan includes development of a themed destination which would include a walled city reminiscent of ancient Loulan, desert-facing hotels, shops and restaurants as well as a themed residential development.[citation needed]
A county is named after Shanshan (Piqan County) in modern Xinjiang, although it lies outside of the historical area of Shanshan.
This is a list of kings who ruled Shanshan from Chinese sources:
In addition, the Kharosthi texts also list these kings: