Shah Jahan I[a] (Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram; 5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), also calledShah Jahan the Magnificent,[7][8] was the fifthMughal Emperor from 1628 until his deposition in 1658. His reign marked the zenith of Mughal architectural and cultural achievements.
The third son ofJahangir (r. 1605–1627), Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against theSisodiaRajputs ofMewar and the rebelLodi nobles of theDeccan. After Jahangir's death in October 1627, Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brotherShahryar Mirza and crowned himself emperor in theAgra Fort. In addition to Shahryar, Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne. He commissioned many monuments, including theRed Fort,Shah Jahan Mosque and the famousTaj Mahal, where his favorite consortMumtaz Mahal is entombed. In foreign affairs, Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against theDeccan sultanates, the conflicts with thePortuguese, and thewars with the Safavids. He also suppressed several local rebellions and dealt with the devastatingDeccan famine of 1630–1632.
In September 1657, the ailing Shah Jahan appointed his eldest sonDara Shikoh as his successor. This led to theMughal war of succession (1658–1659) between his three sons, withAurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) emerging victorious and becoming the sixth emperor, and executing all of his surviving brothers, including the Crown Prince Dara Shikoh. After Shah Jahan recovered from his illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb had him imprisoned inside the Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666.[9] He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal. His reign is known for abandoning the liberal policies initiated by his grandfatherAkbar. During Shah Jahan's time, Islamic revivalist movements like theNaqshbandi began to shape Mughal policies.[10]
He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore, present-day Pakistan, as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim (later known as 'Jahangir' upon his accession) and his chief consort,Jagat Gosain.[11][12] The name Khurram (Persian:خرم,lit.'joyous') was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, EmperorAkbar, with whom the young prince shared a close relationship.[12] Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him, "There is no comparison between him and your other sons. I consider him my true son."[13]
When Khurram was born, Akbar, considering him to be auspicious, insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim's and was thus entrusted to the care ofRuqaiya Sultan Begum. Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram[14] and is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately. Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]."[15]
However, after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605, he returned to the care of his mother, Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely. Although separated from her at birth, he had become devoted to her and had her addressed asHazrat in court chronicles.[16][17] On the death of Jagat Gosain inAkbarabad on 8 April 1619, he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days. For these three weeks of the mourning period, he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals. His consortMumtaz Mahal personally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period. She led the recitation of theQuran every morning, and gave her husband many lessons on the substance of life and death, and begged him not to grieve.[18]
Education
As a child, Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which includedmartial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such aspoetry and music, most of which were inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Jahangir. According to his chronicler Qazvini, prince Khurram was only familiar with a fewTurki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[19] Khurram was attracted toHindi literature since his childhood, and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father's biography,Tuzk-e-Jahangiri.[20] In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed, young Khurram remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father.[21] He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather's household, namelySalima Sultan Begum and his grandmotherMariam-uz-Zamani as Akbar's health deteriorated.[22]
Khusrau rebellion
In 1605, his father succeeded to the throne, after crushing a rebellion byPrince Khusrau. Khurram left Ruqaiya's care and returned to his mother's care.[23] As the third son, Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time, his father's and his half-brother's; thus, he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training. This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in the Mughal court, which would be useful later on in his life.[24]
Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau. He was later ordered to bring Mariam-uz-Zamani, his grandmother and Jahangir's harem to him.[25]
During Khusrau's second rebellion, Khurram's informants informed him that Fatehullah, Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau's instigation and lay await for the Emperor. Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him.[26]
Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold, silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta.[27]
Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half-brother,Khusrau Mirza, Khurram began to drift closer to his father, and, over time, started to be considered the de facto heir-apparent by court chroniclers. This status was given official sanction when Jahangir granted thesarkar ofHissar-e-Feroza, which had traditionally been the fief of the heir-apparent, to Khurram in 1608.[28] After her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611,Nur Jahan gradually became an active participant in all decisions made by Jahangir and gained extreme powers in administration, so much so that it was obvious to everyone both inside and outside that most of his decisions were actually hers. Slowly, while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium, she was considered to be the actual power behind the throne. Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court, termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians. Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother, Nur Jahan who favoured her son-in-lawShahryar Mirza for the succession to the Mughal throne over him. In the last years of Jahangir's life, Nur Jahan was in full power, and the emperor had left all the burden of governance on her. She tried to weaken Khurram's position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan, while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son-in-law. Khurram, after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir-apparent, rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father. Several years before Jahangir's death in 1627, coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan's name along with Jahangir's name; In fact, there were two prerogatives of sovereignty for the legitimacy of a Muslim monarchy (reading theKhutbah and the other being the right tomint coins). After the death of Jahangir in 1627, a struggle developed between Khurram and his half-brother, Shahryar Mirza, for the succession to the Mughal throne. Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature, authority, privileges, honors and economic grants and was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet and comfortable life till her death.
The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612 (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. This was an unusually long engagement for the time. However, Shah Jahan first married aPersian Princess (name not known) entitledKandahari Begum, the daughter of a great-grandson of the greatShah Ismail I ofPersia, with whom he had a daughter, his first child.[30]
In 1612, aged 20, Khurram married Mumtaz Mahal, on a date chosen by court astrologers. The marriage was a happy one, and Khurram remained devoted to her. They had fourteen children, out of whom seven survived into adulthood.
Though there was genuine love between the two, Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband.[31] Later on, as empress, Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power, such as being consulted by her husband in state matters, attending the council (shura ordiwan), and being responsible for theimperial seal, which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft. Shah Jahan also gave her the right to issue her own orders (hukums) and make appointments to him.[citation needed]
Mumtaz Mahal died at the young age of 38 (7 June 1631), upon giving birth to PrincessGauhar Ara Begum in the city ofBurhanpur,Deccan, of apostpartum haemorrhage, which caused considerable blood-loss after painful labor of thirty hours.[32] Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17, was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention, and Shah Jahan was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits.[33] Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad, originally constructed by Shah Jahan's unclePrince Daniyal along theTapti River. Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan's personality and inspired the construction of the marvelousTaj Mahal, where she was later reburied.[34]
Khurram had taken other wives, among whom were Kandahari Begum (m. 28 October 1610) and anotherPersian PrincessIzz un-Nisa Begum (m. 2 September 1617), the daughters of Prince Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son ofAbdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, respectively. But according to court chroniclers, these marriages were more out of political consideration, and they enjoyed only the status of being royal wives.[citation needed]
Khurram is also recorded to have married Leelavati Deiji, daughter of Kunwar Shakti Singh, son of Mota RajaUdai Singh and half-brother of RajaSur Singh of Marwar. The marriage took place atJodhpur when Khurram was in rebellion against his father, emperor Jahangir.[35][36]
Relation with Jahanara
After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, his daughterJahanara Begum had a significant influence in the Mughal administration.[37][38] As a result, several accusations of an incestual relationship between Shah Jahan and Jahanara were propagated.[39] Such accusations have been dismissed by modern historians as gossip, as no witness of an incident has been mentioned.[39]
HistorianK. S. Lal also dismisses such claims as rumors propagated by courtiers andmullahs. He citesAurangzeb's confining of Jahanara in theAgra Fort with the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people magnifying a rumor.[40]
Several contemporary travelers have mentioned such accessions.Francois Bernier, a French physician, mentions rumors of an incestuous relationship being propagated in the Mughal Court.[41] However, Bernier did not mention witnessing such a relationship.[42]Niccolao Manucci, aVenetian traveler, dismisses such accusations by Bernier as gossip and "The talk of the Low People".[39][43]
Early military campaigns
Shirt of the personal armour of Shah Jahanc. 1632–1633
Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent. The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during the Mughal campaign against theRajput state ofMewar, which had been a hostile force to the Mughals since Akbar's reign.[44]
After a year of a harshwar of attrition, RanaAmar Singh I surrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became avassal state of the Mughal Empire as a result of Mughal expedition of Mewar.[45] In 1615, Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh, Amar Singh's heir, to Jahangir. Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir.[46] The same year, his mansab was increased from 12000/6000 to 15000/7000, to equal that of his brother Parvez's and was further increased to 20000/10000 in 1616.[47][48]
The ubmission ofRana Amar Singh of Mewar to Prince Khurram, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri
In 1616, on Khurram's departure to Deccan, Jahangir awarded him the titleShah Sultan Khurram.[49]
In 1617, Khurram was directed to deal with theLodis in theDeccan to secure the Empire's southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region. On his return in 1617, after successes in these campaigns, Khurram performed koronush before Jahangir, who called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him. Jahangir also granted him the title ofShah Jahan (Persian: "King of the World"),[50] and raised his military rank to 30000/20000 and allowed him a special throne in hisDurbar, an unprecedented honor for a prince.[51] Edward S. Holden writes, "He was flattered by some, envied by others, loved by none."[52]
In 1618, Shah Jahan was given the first copy ofTuzk-e-Jahangiri by his father, who considered him "the first of all my sons in everything."[53]
Rebel prince
Shah Jahan on horseback during his youth
Inheritance in the Mughal Empire was not always determined through primogeniture, but also by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Shah Jahan's formative years. In 1611 his father marriedNur Jahan, the widowed daughter of a Persian noble. She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir's court and, together with her brotherAsaf Khan, wielded considerable influence. Arjumand was Asaf Khan's daughter, and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions in court.[citation needed]
Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram's youngest brotherShahzada Shahryar, and her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division. Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother and her son-in-law. When the Persians besiegedKandahar, Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march to Kandahar, but he refused. As a result of Prince Khurram's refusal to obey Nur Jahan's orders, Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty-five-day siege. Prince Khurram feared that in his absence, Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar the heir in his place. This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians.[citation needed]
In 1622, Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father.[54] He was defeated atBilochpur in March 1623. Later he took refuge inUdaipurMewar with MaharanaKaran Singh II. He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted toJagmandir Palace on his request. Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with the Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum, Udaipur (R V Somani 1976). It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in theTaj Mahal ofAgra. In November 1623, he found safe asylum inBengal Subah after he was driven from Agra and the Deccan. He advanced throughMidnapur andBurdwan. At Akbarnagar, he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal,Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang, on 20 April 1624.[55] He enteredDhaka and "all the elephants, horses, and 4,000,000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him". After a short stay he then moved toPatna.[56] His rebellion did not succeed in the end, as his attempt was foiled by Jahangir 's trusted general,Mahabat Khan.[57] He was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated nearAllahabad. Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath the surface.
Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram, acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister's plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne. He put Nur Jahan in close confinement. He obtained control of Prince Khurram's three sons, who were under her charge. Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram's succession to the throne.[58] Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi (Urdu:شهاب الدین محمد خرم), or Shah Jahan.[59]
His regnal name is divided into various parts.Shihab ud-Din, meaning "Star of the Faith",Sahib al-Quiran ud-Thani, meaning "Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus".Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World", alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions. More epithets showed his secular and religious duties. He was also titledHazrat Shahenshah ("His Imperial Majesty"),Hazrat-i-Khilafat-Panahi ("His Majesty the Refuge of the Caliphate"),Hazrat Zill-i-Ilahi ("His Majesty the Shadow of God").[60]
His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother, Nur Jahan. Upon Shah Jahan's orders, several executions took place on 23 January 1628. Those put to death included his brother Shahryar; his nephewsDawar and Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously executed brotherPrince Khusrau; and his cousins Tahmuras andHoshang, sons of the late PrinceDaniyal Mirza.[61][62]This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention.
Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911,400 infantry,musketeers, andartillery men, and 185,000Sowars commanded by princes and nobles.
His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of theTimurid Renaissance, in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage, mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region ofBalkh. In various forms, Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy.[63]
During his reign, theMarwari horse was introduced, becoming Shah Jahan's favorite, and various Mughalcannons were mass-produced in theJaigarh Fort. Under his rule, the empire became a huge military machine, and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens. But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability – the administration was centralized and court affairs systematized.
The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign, as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts. India at the time was a rich center of the arts, crafts and architecture, and some of the best of the architects, artisans, craftsmen, painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan's empire. According to economistAngus Maddison, Mughal-era India's share of global gross domestic product (GDP) grew from 22.7% in 1600 to 24.4% in 1700, surpassing China to become the world's largest.[64][65] E. Dewick and Murray Titus, quotingBadshahnama, write that 76 temples inBenares were demolished on Shah Jahan's orders.[66]
A famine broke out in 1630–1632 in Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures.[67] Two million people died of starvation; grocers sold dogs' flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour. It is reported that parents ate their own children. Some villages were completely destroyed, their streets filled with human corpses. In response to the devastation, Shah Jahan set uplangar (free kitchens) for the victims of the famine.[68]
Successful military campaigns against Deccan sultanates
In 1632, Shah Jahancaptured the fortress at Daulatabad, Maharashtra and imprisoned Husein Shah of theNizam Shahi Kingdom ofAhmednagar. Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan, consisting of Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. During his viceroyalty, Aurangzeb conqueredBaglana where he defeatedBaharji, theRaja.[69][70][71][72] The smallMaratha kingdom of Baglana straddled the main route fromSurat and the western ports toBurhanpur in theDeccan, and had been subservient to one Muslim ruler or another for centuries. In 1637, however, Shah Jahan decided on complete annexation.[69][73] Baharji, who had commanded the Baglana forces, died soon after the conquest. His son converted toIslam and received the title ofDaulatmand Khan.[69][74]
Aurangzeb then defeated Golconda in 1656, and then Bijapur in 1657.[75]
Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city ofKandahar in 1638 from theSafavids, prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their rulerAbbas II of Persia, whorecaptured it in 1649. The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during theMughal–Safavid War.[76] Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond theKhyber Pass toGhazna and Kandahar.[77]
Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia from 1646 to 1647 against theKhanate of Bukhara. With a total army of 75,000, Shah Jahan and his sonsAurangzeb andMurad Bakhsh temporarily occupied the territories ofBalkh andBadakhshan. However, they retreated from the fruitless lands, and Balkh and Badakhshan returned to Bukharan control.[78]
Relations with the Ottoman Empire
Shah Jahan sent an embassy to theOttoman court in 1637.[79] Led by Mir Zarif, it reached SultanMurad IV the following year, while he was encamped in Baghdad. Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter that encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia. The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha. Shah Jahan received the ambassador in June 1640.[80]
While he was encamped inBaghdad, Murad IV is known to have met ambassadors of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, who presented 1000 pieces of finely embroidered cloth and even armor. Murad IV gave them the finest weapons,saddles andKaftans and ordered his forces to accompany theMughals to the port ofBasra, where they set sail toThatta and finallySurat.[80] They exchanged lavish presents, but Shah Jahan was displeased with Sultan Murad's return letter, the tone of which he found discourteous. Sultan Murad's successor, SultanIbrahim, sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians, but there is no record of a reply.[80]
War with Portuguese
Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post atPort Hoogly. The post was heavily armed with cannons,battleships, fortified walls, and other instruments of war.[81] The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials, and due to commercial competition, the Mughal-controlled port ofSaptagram began to slump. Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities ofJesuits in that region, notably when they were accused of abducting peasants. On 25 September 1632, the Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over theBandel region, and the garrison waspunished.[82] On 23 December 1635, Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished. The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits. However, the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy. He also banned the Jesuits from preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims.[83][84] Though in the decree, he also granted 777 bighas of rent-free land to the Augustinian Fathers and the Christian community in Bandel, currently in West Bengal, shaping its Portuguese heritage for times to come.[85]
Revolts against Shah Jahan
TheKolis ofGujarat rebelled against the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit, the Governor of Gujarat, to subdue the Kolis ofAhmedabad.[86] Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed in an effort to manage the Koli's activities. The Kolis ofKankrej inNorth Gujarat committed excesses, and the Jam ofNawanagar refused to pay tribute to Shah Jahan. Soon, Ázam Khán was appointed in an effort to subdue the Kolis and bring order to the province. Ázam Khán marched against Koli rebels. When Ázam Khán reachedSidhpur, the local merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, aChunvalia Koli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with a show of vigour before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar nearKheralu, sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder, and guaranteed that he would not only cease to commit robberies but also pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli's territory, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and the other Khalílábád after his son. Additionally, he forced the surrender of the Jam of Nawanagar.[87] The next viceroy, Ísa Tarkhán, carried out financial reforms. In 1644, theMughal princeAurangzeb was appointed as the viceroy, who then proceeded to become engaged in religious disputes, such as the destruction of aJain temple inAhmedabad. Due to these disputes, he was replaced byShaista Khan who failed to subdue Kolis. Subsequently, princeMurad Bakhsh was appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored order and defeated the Koli rebels.[88]
When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658,Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers.[90] Upon learning of his assumption of the regency, his younger brothers,Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, andMurad Baksh, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb, the third son, gathered a well-trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during theBattle of Samugarh.[91] Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him underhouse arrest in Agra Fort.[92]
Jahanara Begum Sahib, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest surviving daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 22 January, he commended the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting theKal'ma (Laa ilaaha ill allah) and verses from theQuran, Shah Jahan died, aged 74.[citation needed]
The passing of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan's chaplainSayyid Muhammad Qanauji and Kazi Qurban of Agra came to the fort, moved his body to a nearby hall, washed it, enshrouded it, and put it in a coffin of sandalwood.[31]
Princess Jahanara had planned a state funeral, which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan's body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation. The body was taken to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.[93]
The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level of Taj Mahal
Contributions to architecture
Imperial seals of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one of the greatest patrons ofMughal architecture.[94] His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture.[95] His most famous building was the Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empressMumtaz Mahal. His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal has been heavily adapted into Indian art, literature and cinema. Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury, and several precious stones, such as theKohinoor.
Its structure was drawn with great care, and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose. The building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick. Upon his death, his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal. Among other constructions from his reign are theRed Fort, also called theDelhi Fort orLal Qila inUrdu, large sections of Agra Fort, theJama Masjid, theWazir Khan Mosque, theMoti Masjid, theShalimar Gardens, sections of theLahore Fort, theMahabat Khan Mosque inPeshawar, theMini Qutub Minar[96] inHastsal, the Jahangir mausoleum – his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and theShahjahan Mosque. He also had the Peacock Throne,Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his rule. Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture.[97]
TheShah Jahan Mosque in Thatta, Sindh province of Pakistan (100 km / 60 miles from Karachi) was built during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1647. The mosque is built with red bricks with blue coloured glaze tiles, probably imported from another Sindh's town ofHala. The mosque has overall 93 domes, and it is the world's largest mosque having such a number of domes. It has been built keeping acoustics in mind. A person speaking inside one end of the dome can be heard at the other end when the speech exceeds 100decibels. It has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage List since 1993.[98]
Only child of Izz-un-Nissa; died aged 1 year 9 months.[103]
Inscriptions
Shah Jahan inscription from a well at Makrana, Rajasthan[104]
The inscription from Makrana, Nagaur District, dating back to 1651 AD, mentions Mirza Ali Baig, who was likely a local governor under Shah Jahan's rule.[105] It describes a notice he posted on a step-well, prohibiting low-caste individuals from using the well alongside higher-caste people.[106]
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^Shujauddin, Mohammad; Shujauddik, Razia (1967).The Life and Times of Noor Jahan. Lahore: Caravan Book House. p. 121.OCLC638031657.
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^Fenech, Louis E. (2014). "The Evolution of the Sikh Community". InSingh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 46.ISBN978-0-19-969930-8.Jahangir's son, ponkua, better known as the emperor Shah Jahan the Architect
^Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E., eds. (2014). "Index".The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 649.ISBN978-0-19-969930-8.Shah Jahan, Emperor Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram
^Kamboh, Muhammad Saleh.Amal I Salih.During her stay at Fatehpur, the mother of Shah Jahan, Hazrat Bilqis Makani, a resident of Agra became ill. The treatment did not work. Finally, on 4th Jamadi-ul-Awal, she died and according to her will, she was buried at Dehra Bagh, near Noor Manzil.
^Perston, Diana; Perston, Micheal.A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal.Although removed from his mother at birth, Shah Jahan had become devoted to her.
^Lal, Muni (1986).Shah Jahan. Vikas Publishing House. p. 52.
^Prasad 1930, p. 189 "During his grandfather's last illness, he [Khurram] refused to leave the bedside surrounded by his enemies. Neither the advice of his father nor the entreaties of his mother could prevail on him to prefer the safety of his life to his last duty to the father."
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 61.ISBN9780195127188.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 84.ISBN9780195127188.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 81.ISBN9780195127188.
^Prasad 1930, p. 190 "Khusrau conspired, rebelled, and lost the favour of his father ... Of all the sons of Jahangir, Khurram was marked out to be the heir-apparent and successor ... In 1608 the assignment of the sarkar of Hissar Firoz to him proclaimed to the world that he was intended for the throne."
^Irvine, William, ed. (1907),"Begum Saheb",Storia Do Mogor Vol 1, Oxford University press, pp. 216–217
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 154.ISBN9780195127188.
^Prasad 1930, p. 239 "Constant skirmishes were thinning the Rajput ranks ... [Amar Singh] offered to recognize Mughal supremacy ... Jahangir gladly and unreservedly accepted the terms."
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 116.ISBN9780195127188.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 175.ISBN9780195127188.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 192.ISBN9780195127188.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 201.ISBN9780195127188.
^Middleton, John (2015).World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. p. 451.ISBN978-1-317-45158-7.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 228-29.ISBN9780195127188.
^Holden, Edward S. (2004) [First published 1895].Mughal Emperors of Hindustan (1398–1707). New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Service. p. 257.ISBN978-81-206-1883-1.
^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama. Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp. 271.ISBN9780195127188.
^Ohlander, Erik; Curry, John, eds. (2012).Sufism and Society: Arrangements of the Mystical in the Muslim World, 1200–1800.Routledge. p. 141.ISBN9781138789357.
^Campbell, James Macnabb (1896). "Chapter III. Mughal Viceroys. (A.D. 1573–1758)".History of Gujarát. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. I(II). The Government Central Press. p. 279. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
^Indraji, Bhagvánlál; Watson, John Whaley; Baines, Jervoise Athelstane; Ashburner, L. R."History of Gujarát". pp. 278–283. Retrieved16 October 2022 – via Project Gutenberg.
^Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1984) [First published 1981].Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Vol. II (2nd ed.). Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 59.ISBN978-8120710153.OCLC1008395679.
^abcdMoosvi, Shireen (2008).People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 115.ISBN978-0195693157.
^abcdSarker, Kobita (2007).Shah Jahan and his paradise on earth : the story of Shah Jahan's creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals. Kolkata: K.P. Bagchi & Co. p. 40.ISBN978-8170743002.
^Begley, W. E.; Desai, Z.A., eds. (1989).Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture. p. 23.ISBN978-0-295-96944-2.
^Archaeology progress report of the A.S.I., Western Circle. Central Archeological Library. p. 40.Under management of Mirza Ali Baig. As the date A.H. 1061 is equivalent to A.D. 1650, the 25th year must refer to Shah Jahan's reign, Mirza Ali Baig must have been his local governor.
^A. Ghosh, (Director General of Archaeology in India) (22 December 1965).Indian Archaeology 1962-63, A Review. Government of India Press, Faridabad. p. 60.INSCRIPTIONS OF THE MUGHALS, DISTRICTS JAIPUR, NAGAUR AND TONK.—Of the inscriptions of Shah Jahan, the one from Makrana, District Nagaur, records a notice put up on a step-well in А.Н. 1061 (A.D. 1651) by Mirza Ali Baig prohibiting the low-caste people from drawing water from the well along with the people of higher caste.
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![Lahore's Wazir Khan Mosque is considered to be the most ornate Mughal-era mosque.[99]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWazir_khan_mosque_entry.jpg)
