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Serbian Orthodox Church

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Autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church body in Southeast Europe


Serbian Orthodox Church
Српска православна црква
Srpska pravoslavna crkva
AbbreviationSOC,СПЦ,SPC
TypeAutocephaly
ClassificationChristian
OrientationEastern Orthodox
Scripture
TheologyEastern Orthodox theology
PolityEpiscopal
GovernanceHoly Synod of the Serbian Orthodox Church
StructureCommunion
PrimatePatriarchPorfirije
Bishops44
Parishes3,100
AssociationsWorld Council of Churches[1]
Conference of European Churches
LanguageChurch Slavonic
Serbian
LiturgyByzantine Rite
HeadquartersPalace of the Patriarchate,Belgrade
TerritorySerbia,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Montenegro,Croatia,Kosovo,Slovenia

Serbian diaspora:

Europe (Germany,France, Spain, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal,British Isles, Scandinavia, Romania, Bulgaria,Austria, Switzerland)
America (Canada,United States of America,South America),
Oceania (Australia, New Zealand)
FounderSaint Sava
Origin1219
Kingdom of Serbia
Independence1219–1463
1557–1766
1879–present
Recognition1219(Autocephalous archbishopric)
1346(Autocephalous Patriarchate)
1557(Autocephalous Patriarchate)
1879(Autocephalous metropolitanate)
1920(Autocephalous Patriarchate)
Separated fromEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
SeparationsGreek Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia
Macedonian Orthodox Church
Montenegrin Orthodox Church
Members8–12 million
Other names
  • Serbian Church
  • Serbian Patriarchate
Official websitespc.rs

TheSerbian Orthodox Church (SOC;Serbian:Српска православна црква, СПЦ,Srpska pravoslavna crkva, SPC) is one of theautocephalous (ecclesiastically independent)Eastern Orthodox Christianchurches.[2][3]

The majority of the population inSerbia,Montenegro andRepublika Srpska ofBosnia and Herzegovina arebaptised members of the Serbian Orthodox Church. It is organised intometropolitanates andeparchies, located primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, andCroatia. Other congregations are located in theSerb diaspora. TheSerbian Patriarch serves asfirst among equals in his Church. The current patriarch isPorfirije, enthroned on 19 February 2021.[4]

The Church achieved autocephalous status in 1219,[5] under the leadership ofSaint Sava, becoming the independentArchbishopric of Žiča. Its status was elevated to that of apatriarchate in 1346,[6] and was subsequently known as theSerbian Patriarchate of Peć. This patriarchate was abolished by theOttoman Empire in 1766,[7] though several regional sections of the Church continued to exist, most prominent among them being theMetropolitanate of Karlovci, in theHabsburg monarchy.[8] After the re-creation ofSerbia,ecclesiastical autonomy was regained in 1831,[9] and the autocephaly was renewed in 1879. The modern Serbian Orthodox Church was re-established in 1920, after the unification of theMetropolitanate of Belgrade, thePatriarchate of Karlovci, and theMetropolitanate of Montenegro.[10]

History

[edit]

Early Christianity

[edit]
Main article:Early Christianity

Christianity started to spread throughoutSoutheastern Europe during the first century AD. Early martyrsFlorus and Laurus from the second century, who were murdered along with other 300 Christians inUlpiana (modern-dayLipljan, Kosovo) are venerated asChristian saints. BishopIrenaeus of Sirmium was also martyred, in 304. EmperorConstantine the Great (r. 306–337), born inNaissus (modern-dayNiš), was the first Christian ruler of theRoman Empire. Several local bishops, seated in present-day Serbia, became prominent during the fourth century, such asGerminius of Sirmium,Ursacius of Singidunum andSecundianus of Singidunum (modern-dayBelgrade), whileseveral Councils were held inSirmium (modern-daySremska Mitrovica).[11]

In 395, the Empire was divided, and its eastern half later became theEastern (Byzantine) Empire. In 535, EmperorJustinian I created theArchbishopric of Justiniana Prima, centred in the emperor's birth-city ofJustiniana Prima, near modern-dayLebane, Serbia. The archbishopric had ecclesiastical jurisdiction over all provinces of theDiocese of Dacia.[12] By the beginning of the seventh century, Byzantine provincial and ecclesiastical order in the region was destroyed by invadingAvars andSlavs. Church life was renewed in the same century in the provinces ofIllyricum andDalmatia after a more pronouncedChristianisation of the Serbs and other Slavs by theRoman Patriarchate (RP).[13] In the seventh and mid-eighth centuries the area was not under the jurisdiction of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[14]

Christianisation of Serbs

[edit]

The history of theearly medieval Serbian Principality is recorded in the workDe Administrando Imperio (DAI), compiled by Byzantine EmperorConstantine VII Porphyrogenitus (r. 913–959). TheDAI drew information on the Serbs from, among others, a Serbian source.[15] The Serbs were said to have received the protection of EmperorHeraclius (r. 610–641), and Porphyrogenitus stressed that the Serbs had always been under Imperial rule. According toDAI, the Serbs at first received their baptism from theRP.[16] His account on the firstChristianisation of the Serbs can be dated from 632 to 638; this might have been Porphyrogenitus' construction, or may have encompassed a limited group of chiefs, with lesser reception by the wider layers of the tribe.[17] From the seventh until the mid-ninth century, the Serbs were under influence of theRP.[18] The initial ecclesiastical affiliation with a specific diocese is uncertain, probably was not an Adriatic centre.[19] Early medieval Serbs are accounted as Christian by the 870s,[20] but it was a process that ended in the late ninth century during the time ofBasil I,[21] and medieval necropolises until the 13th century in the territory of modern Serbia show an "incomplete process of Christianisation" as local Christianity depended on the social structure (urban and rural).[22]

The expansion of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (EP) over thePraetorian prefecture of Illyricum is considered to have begun in 731 by EmperorLeo III when he annexedSicily andCalabria,[23][24] but whether theEP also expanded into the eastern parts of Illyricum and Dalmatia is uncertain and a matter of scholarly debate.[25] The expansion most definitely happened since the mid-ninth century,[14] when the Byzantine emperors and patriarch demanded that Church administrative borders follow political borders.[18] In the same century, the region was also politically contested between theCarolingian Empire and Byzantine Empire.[26] The most influential and successful was EmperorBasil I, who actively worked on gaining control over all ofIllyricum.[27] Basil I likely sent at least one embassy to PrinceMutimir of Serbia,[28] who decided to maintain the communion of Church in Serbia with theEP whenPope John VIII invited him to return to the jurisdiction of the bishopric ofSirmium (see alsoArchbishopric of Moravia) in a letter dated to May 873.[29]

Seal of Serbian PrinceStrojimir from the late ninth century,[30] one of the oldest artefacts on the Christianisation of Serbs.

Alexis P. Vlasto argued that theEparchy of Ras was founded duringMutimir's rule, as a bishopric of Serbia, atRas with theChurch of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul,[31] as part of the general plan of establishing bishoprics in the Slavic lands of the Empire, confirmed by theFourth Council of Constantinople in 879–880,[31] most significantly related to the creation of the autonomousArchbishopric of Bulgaria (AoB) of which theRP lost jurisdiction.[32][33] However, according toPredrag Komatina, there is no mention of any bishopric in Serbia. In early medieval Europe, the existence of a Christian church without a bishop in a specific land was not uncommon, and being placed under thePannonian bishop implies that there was no local Serbian bishop at the time.[34]Tibor Živković concluded, based on primary sources of theEP, that there was no information regarding the establishment of any new ecclesiastical centre and organisation in Serbia, that the Serbian ecclesiastical centre and capital was atDestinikon, whileRas in the mid-ninth century was only a border fort which became the ecclesiastical centre of the bishopric by 1019 or 1020.[35] The imperial charter ofBasil II from 1020 to theArchbishopric of Ohrid, in which the rights and jurisdictions were established, has the earliest mention of the bishopric ofRas, stating it belonged to the autocephalousAoB during the reigns ofPeter I (927–969) andSamuel (977–1014).[36][37] It was of a small size.[38] It is considered that it was possibly founded by the Bulgarian emperor,[39][40] but most probably it represented the latest date in which it could have been integrated into theAoB.[41] TheRas Bishopric was probably part of the Bulgarianmetropolis of Morava, but certainly not ofDyrrhachium.[42] If it was in Serbian territory, it seems that the Church in Serbia or part of the territory of Serbia became linked and influenced by theAoB between 870 and 924.[43]

With Christianisation in the ninth century, Christian names appear among the members of Serbian dynasties, likePetar (Peter),Stefan (Stephen),Pavle (Paul), andZaharije (Zechariah).[44] PrincePetar Gojniković (r. 892–917) was evidently a Christian ruler,[44] and Christianity was presumably spreading in his time.[45] Since Serbia bordered Bulgaria, Christian influences and perhaps missionaries came from there, increasing during the twenty-year peace.[46] The Bulgarian annexation of Serbia in 924 was important for the future direction of the Serbian Church. By then, at the latest, Serbia must have received theCyrillic script and Slavic religious texts, already familiar but perhaps not yet preferred to Greek.[31]

Archbishopric of Ohrid (1018–1219)

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Map depicting theArchbishopric of Ohridc. 1020
Main article:Archbishopric of Ohrid

Following hisfinal subjugation of the Bulgarian state in 1018,Basil II, to underscore the Byzantine victory, established theArchbishopric of Ohrid by downgrading theBulgarian Patriarchate to the rank ofarchbishopric. The now archbishopric remained anautocephalous church, separate from theEP. However, while the archbishopric was completely independent in any other aspect, itsprimate was selected by the emperor from a list of three candidates submitted by the localchurch synod. In threesigillia issued in 1020, Basil II gave extensive privileges to the new see.[47] In the first and third charter of Basil II, the Bishopric of Serbia was mentioned, whilst in the second charter of Basil II, dated 1020, theBishopric of Ras is mentioned, with itscathedra at theChurch of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul.[48][49]

The tenth- or eleventh-century Gospel BookCodex Marianus, written inOld Church Slavonic in theGlagolitic script, is one of the oldest known Slavic manuscripts. It was partly written in the Serbian redaction of Old Church Slavonic.[50] Other early manuscripts include the 12th-centuryGršković's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles andMihanović's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles.

Timeline showing the main autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Churches, from an Eastern Orthodox point of view, up to 2021

Autocephalous Archbishopric (1219–1346)

[edit]
Saint Sava, first Serbian archbishop

Serbian princeRastko Nemanjić, son of Grand PrinceStefan Nemanja, took monastic vows atMount Athos asSava (Sabbas) in 1192.[51][52] Three years later, his father joined him, taking monastic vows asSimeon. Father and son asked the Holy Community to found a Serbian religious centre at the abandoned site ofHilandar, which they renovated. This marked the beginning of a renaissance (inarts,literature andreligion). Sava's father died atHilandar in 1199 and was canonised as St. Simeon the Myroblyte.[52] Sava stayed for some years, rising in rank, then returned to Serbia in 1207, taking with him the remains of his father, which he interred atStudenica Monastery, after reconciling his two quarrelling brothersStefan andVukan.[53]Stefan asked him to remain in Serbia with his clerics, which he did, providing widespread pastoral care and education to the people. Sava founded several churches and monasteries, among themŽiča. In 1217,Stefan was proclaimedKing of Serbia, and various questions regarding church reorganisation were opened.[54]

St Sava returned to the Holy Mountain in 1217 or 1218, preparing for the formation of anautocephalous Serbian Church. He was consecrated in 1219 as the firstArchbishop of the Serbian Church, and was given autocephaly byEPManuel I of Constantinople, then in exile atNicaea.[55][56] In the same year, Sava publishedZakonopravilo (St. Sava's Nomocanon). Thus the Serbs acquired both forms of independence: political and religious.[57] After this, in Serbia, Sava stayed inStudenica and continued to educate the Serbian people in their faith. Later he called for a council outlawing theBogomils, whom he considered heretics. Sava appointed several bishops, sending them around Serbia to organise their dioceses.[58] To maintain his standing as the religious and social leader, he continued to travel among the monasteries and lands to educate the people. In 1221 a synod was held inŽiča monastery, condemningBogomilism.[59]

The following seats were newly created in the time of Saint Sava:

Older eparchies under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Archbishop were:

Trojeručica (lit. 'three-handed one') is often considered the most important icon of the SOC, and the principal icon ofMount Athos

In 1229 or 1233, Sava went on a pilgrimage toPalestine and inJerusalem he met with PatriarchAthanasius II. Sava sawBethlehem whereJesus was born, theJordan River whereChrist was baptised, and the Great Lavra of SaintSabbas the Sanctified (Mar Saba monastery), his namesake. Sava asked Athanasius II, his host, and the Great Lavra fraternity, led byhegoumenos Nicholas, if he could purchase two monasteries in theHoly Land. His request was accepted and he was offered the monasteries of Saint John the Theologian onMount Sion and St. George's Monastery atAkona, both to be inhabited by Serbian monks. The iconTrojerucica (Three-handed Theotokos), a gift to the Great Lavra fromSt. John Damascene, was given to Sava and he, in turn, bequeathed it toHilandar.

St Sava died inVeliko Tarnovo, capital of theSecond Bulgarian Empire, during the reign ofIvan Asen II of Bulgaria. According to hisBiography, he fell ill following theDivine Liturgy on theFeast of the Epiphany, 12 January 1235. Sava was visiting Veliko Tarnovo on his way back from theHoly Land, where he had founded ahospice for Syrian pilgrims inJerusalem and arranged for Serbian monks to be welcomed in the established monasteries there. He died ofpneumonia in the night between Saturday and Sunday, 14 January 1235, and was buried at theCathedral of the Holy Forty Martyrs in Veliko Tarnovo where his body remained until 6 May 1237, when his sacred bones were moved to the monasteryMileševa in southern Serbia.

In 1253 the see was transferred to theMonastery of Peć by Archbishop Arsenije.[60] The Serbian primates had since moved between the two.[61] Sometime between 1276 and 1292 theCumans burnedŽiča Monastery, and KingStefan Milutin (1282–1321) renovated it in from 1292 to 1309, during the patriarchate ofJevstatije II.[62] Between 1289 and 1290, the chief treasures of the ruined monastery, including therelics ofSaint Jevstatije I, were transferred toPeć Monastery.[63] During the rule of the same king, theMonastery of Gračanica was also renewed,[64] and during the reign of KingStefan Uroš III (1321–1331), theMonastery of Dečani was built,[65] under the supervision of ArchbishopDanilo II.[66]

Medieval Patriarchate (1346–1463)

[edit]
Main article:Serbian Patriarchate of Peć

The status of the Serbian Orthodox Church grew along with the expansion and heightened prestige of theSerbian Kingdom. After KingStefan Dušan assumed the imperial title oftsar, the Serbian Archbishopric was correspondingly raised to the rank ofPatriarchate in 1346. In the century that followed, the SOC achieved its greatest power and prestige. In the 14th century Serbian Orthodox clergy had the title ofprotos atMount Athos.

On 16 April 1346 (Easter),Stefan Dušan convoked a grand assembly atSkopje, attended by the Serbian ArchbishopJoanikije II, ArchbishopNicholas I of Ohrid,Simeon of Bulgaria and various religious leaders of Mount Athos. The assembly and clergy agreed on, and then ceremonially performed the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the status of Patriarchate. The Archbishop was from now on titledSerbian Patriarch, although some documents called him thePatriarch of Serbs and Greeks, with the seat atPeć. The new PatriarchJoanikije II solemnly crownedStefan Dušan as "Emperor andautocrat ofSerbs andRomans" (seeEmperor of Serbs). The patriarchal status resulted in the elavation of bishoprics tometropolitanates, such as theMetropolitanate of Skopje. The Patriarchate took over sovereignty on Athos and the Greek archbishoprics under the jurisdiction of theEP (the Archbishopric of Ohrid remained autocephalous), which resulted inDušan's excommunication byEPCallistus I of Constantinople in 1350.[67]

In 1375, an agreement between the SOC and theEP was reached.[68] The1389 Battle of Kosovo and its aftermath had a lasting influence on medieval legacy and later traditions of the SOC.[69] In 1455, when the Ottoman Turks conquered the Patriarchal seat inPeć,SPArsenije II found temporary refuge inSmederevo, the capital city of theSerbian Despotate.[70]

Among cultural, artistic and literary legacies created under the auspices of the SOC during the medieval period werehagiographies, known in Serbian asžitije, that were written as biographies of rulers, archbishops and saints from the 12th up to the 15th century.[71][72][73]

Renewed Patriarchate (1557–1766)

[edit]
Map of theSerbian Patriarchate of Peć during the 16th and 17th centuries
Main article:Serbian Patriarchate of Peć

TheOttoman Empire conquered theSerbian Despotate in 1459, theBosnian Kingdom in 1463,Herzegovina in 1482 andZeta in 1496. All of the conquered lands were divided intosanjaks. Although some Serbs converted toIslam, most continued their adherence to the SOC. The Church itself continued to exist throughout the Ottoman period, though not without some disruption. After the death ofSPArsenije II in 1463, a successor was not elected. The Patriarchate was thusde facto abolished, and the Serbian Church passed under the jurisdiction ofArchbishopric of Ohrid and ultimately theEP which exercised jurisdiction over all Orthodox of the Ottoman Empire under themillet system.

After several failed attempts, made fromc. 1530 up to 1541 by MetropolitanPavle of Smederevo to regain theautocephaly by seizing the throne ofPeć and proclaiming himself not only Archbishop ofPeć, but also Serbian Patriarch, the Serbian Patriarchate was finally restored in 1557 under theSultanSuleiman I, thanks to the mediation ofpashaMehmed Sokolović, who was a Serb by birth. His cousin, one of the Serbian bishopsMakarije Sokolović was elected Patriarch inPeć. The restoration of the Patriarchate was of great importance for the Serbs because it helped the spiritual unification of all Serbs in the Ottoman Empire. The Patriarchate ofPeć also included some dioceses in western Bulgaria.[74]

During the reign ofSPJovan Kantul (1592–1614), the Ottoman Turks took therelics of Saint Sava fromMileševa toVračar hill inBelgrade where they were subsequently burned bySinan Pasha on a stake to intimidate the Serbs in case of revolts (see1594 Banat Uprising). TheTemple of Saint Sava would later be built on the place where his relics were burned.[75]

After consequent Serbian uprisings against Ottoman rule in which Serbian clergy had a leading role, the Ottomans abolished the Patriarchate once again in 1766.[7] The Serb-inhabited territories came underEP jurisdiction.

Church in the Habsburg Monarchy

[edit]
Main articles:Metropolitanate of Karlovci andPatriarchate of Karlovci
SPArsenije III (r. 1674–1690), leader of theGreat Serbian Migration of 1690

During this period, Christians across the Balkans wereunder pressure to convert to Islam to avoid severe taxes (such as theJizya) imposed by the Ottomans in retaliation for uprisings and continued resistance. The success of Islamisation was limited to certain areas, with the majority of the Serb population keeping its Christian faith despite the negative consequences. To avoid them, numerous Serbs migrated with theirhierarchs to theHabsburg monarchy where their autonomy had been granted. In 1708 an autonomous Serbian OrthodoxMetropolitanate of Karlovci was created, which would later become apatriarchate (1848–1920).[76]

During the reign ofMaria Theresa (1740–1780), several assemblies of Orthodox Serbs were held, sending their petitions to the Habsburg court. In response to that, several royal acts were issued, such asRegulamentum privilegiorum (1770) andRegulamentum Illyricae Nationis (1777), both of them replaced by the royalDeclaratory Rescript of 1779, that regulated various important questions, from the procedure regarding the elections of Serbian Orthodox bishops in the Habsburg Monarchy, to the management of dioceses, parishes and monasteries. The act was upheld in force until it was replaced by the "Royal Rescript" issued on 10 August 1868.[77]

Modern history

[edit]
Timeline showing the main schisms which came out of the Serbian Orthodox Church, from the second quarter of the 19th century up to 2021
Main articles:Metropolitanate of Belgrade andPatriarchate of Karlovci

The Church's close association with Serbian resistance to Ottoman rule led toEastern Orthodoxy becoming inextricably linked with Serbian national identity and the newSerbian monarchy that emerged from 1815 onwards. The Church in thePrincipality of Serbia gained itsautonomy in 1831 and was organised as theMetropolitanate of Belgrade, remaining under theecclesiastical jurisdiction of theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[9] Serbia gained full political (de jure) independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, and soon after those negotiations were initiated with theEP, resulting in canonical recognition of full ecclesiastical independence (autocephaly) for the Metropolitanate of Belgrade in 1879.[78]

At the same time, Serbian Orthodox eparchies inBosnia and Herzegovina remained under the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction of theEP, but after theAustro-Hungarian occupation (1878) of those provinces, local eparchies gained internal autonomy, regulated by the Convention of 1880, signed by representatives of Austro-Hungarian authorities and theEP.[79][80]

In the southern eparchies, that remained under Ottoman rule, Serbian metropolitans were appointed by the end of the 19th century.[81] Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, several distinctive Serbian ecclesiastical provinces existed, including thePatriarchate of Karlovci in theHabsburg monarchy, theMetropolitanate of Belgrade in theKingdom of Serbia, and theMetropolitanate of Montenegro in thePrincipality of Montenegro (Kingdom of Montenegro after 1910).

During theSerbian campaign ofWorld War I (1914–1918), the SOC suffered massive casualties.[82]

Reunification

[edit]
SPDimitrije (r. 1920–1930), first primate of the reunited Serbian Orthodox Church

After the liberation and political unification achieved through creation of theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918), all Orthodox Serbs were united under one ecclesiastical authority, and all Orthodox ecclesiastical provinces and eparchies were united into the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1920.[10] The first primate of the united SOC wasSPDimitrije (r. 1920–1930). The SOC gained great political and social influence in the inter-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia, during which time it successfully campaigned against the Yugoslav government's intentions of signing aconcordat with theHoly See.

The SOC kept under its jurisdiction theEparchy of Buda in Hungary. In 1921, the SOC created a new eparchy for theCzech lands, headed by BishopGorazd Pavlík. At the same time, the Serbian Church among thediaspora was reorganised, and aneparchy for the United States and Canada was created.[83] In 1931 another diocese was created, called theEparchy of Mukačevo and Prešov, for the Eastern Orthodox Christians in Slovakia andCarpathian Ruthenia.

During theSecond World War the SOC suffered severely from persecutions by the occupying powers and the rabidlyanti-SerbianUstaše regime of theIndependent State of Croatia (NDH), which sought to create a "Croatian Orthodox Church" which some Orthodox Serbs were forced to join, while many other Serbs were killed, expelled orforced to convert to Catholicism during theSerbian Genocide; bishops and priests were singled out for persecution, and many churches were damaged or destroyed.[84] Out of the 577 Serbian Orthodox priests, monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH, between 214 and 217 were killed and 334 were exiled toGerman-occupied Serbia.[85] Some of them were brutally tortured and mutilated by theUstaše prior to being killed,[86] such asBranko Dobrosavljević,Damjan Štrbac, andĐorđe Bogić, all of whom would later becanonised. In the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 71 Orthodox priests were killed by theUstaše, 10 by thePartisans, 5 by the Germans, and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII.[87]

Under communist rule

[edit]
A panoramic view of the tower of thePatriarchal Cathedral of St. Michael andPalace of the Serbian Patriarchate inBelgrade

After the war, the Church was suppressed by thecommunist government ofJosip Broz Tito, which viewed it with suspicion due to the Church's links with the leadership from the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Serbian nationalistChetnik movement. According toDenis Bećirović, aside from theLeague of Communists of Yugoslavia's ideological differences with the Church, this negative attitude was also influenced by the fact that some priests during the war supported the Chetnik movement which are mentioned in Documents of the Commission for Religious Affairs where is stated that among other things, that the majority of priests during the war supported and cooperated with the movement ofDraža Mihailović, and that the Church spread "hostile propaganda" against theYugoslav Partisans and appointed persons in the administration of Church institutions who were convicted of collaborating with the occupier.[87] Along with other ecclesiastical institutions of all denominations, the Church was subject to strict controls by the Yugoslav state, which prohibited the teaching of religion in schools, confiscated Church property and discouraged religious activity among the population.[88]

In 1963, the Serbian Church among theSerb diaspora was reorganised, and the eparchy for the United States and Canada was divided into three separate eparchies. At the same time, some internal divisions sparked in thediaspora, leading to the creation of the separate "Free Serbian Orthodox Church" under BishopDionisije. The schism was healed in 1991, resulting in the establishment of theMetropolitanate of New Gračanica, within the united Serbian Orthodox Church.[89] In 1983, a fourth eparchy in North America was created specifically for Canadian churches: theSerbian Orthodox Diocese of Canada.[90]

The gradual demise of Yugoslav communism and the rise of rival nationalist movements during the 1980s also led to a marked religious revival throughout Yugoslavia, not least in Serbia.SPPavle II supported the opposition toSlobodan Milošević in the 1990s.

Since the establishment of the Yugoslav federal unit ofMacedonia in 1944, communist authorities restricted the activities of SOC in that region, favoring the creation of a separate church body.[91] TheMacedonian Orthodox Church was created in 1967, effectively as an offshoot of the SOC in what was then the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, as part of the Yugoslav drive to build up aMacedonian national identity. This was strongly resisted by the SOC, which did not recognise the independence of its Macedonian counterpart.[92]

Similar plans for the creation of an independent church in the Yugoslav federal unit ofMontenegro were also considered, but those plans were not put into action before 1993, when the creation of theMontenegrin Orthodox Church was proclaimed. The organisation was not legally registered before 2000, receiving no support from the Eastern Orthodox communion, and succeeding to attract only a minority of Eastern Orthodox adherents in Montenegro.[93][94]

Recent history

[edit]
TheChurch of Saint Sava is one of thelargest Orthodox churches in the world, built at the site where therelics of Saint Sava were incinerated by the Ottomans.

TheYugoslav wars greatly impacted the Serbian Orthodox Church. During this time, the Church was embroiled duringSlobodan Milošević's policies and the wars inCroatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina, andKosovo.[95][96][97]

Many Orthodox churches in Croatia were damaged or destroyed during the war in Croatia (1991–1995). The clergy, including bishops, and most laypeople of the eparchies ofZagreb, ofKarlovac, ofSlavonia and ofDalmatia became refugees; the latter three were almost completely abandoned after the exodus of the Serbs from Croatia in 1995 due toOperation Storm. The Eparchy of Dalmatia also had its see temporarily moved toKnin after the self-proclaimedproto-stateRepublic of Serbian Krajina was established. The Еparchy of Slavonia had its see moved fromPakrac toDaruvar. After Operation Storm,Krupa Monastery was particularly damaged, andKrka Monastery was looted.

The Eparchies ofBihać and Petrovac,Dabar-Bosnia andZvornik and Tuzla were also dislocated due to thewar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Thesee ofDabar-Bosnia was temporarily moved toSokolac, and the see ofZvornik-Tuzla toBijeljina. Over a hundred Church-owned objects in theZvornik-Tuzla Еparchy were destroyed or damaged during the war.[98] Many monasteries and churches in theEparchy of Zahumlje were also destroyed as part of the widespread devastation of Orthodox religious heritage.[99] Numerous faithful from these eparchies also became refugees during the conflict.[100]

The destroyedHoly Trinity Church inPetrič village, Kosovo
Devič Monastery after it was burned down during the2004 unrest in Kosovo

By 1998, the situation had stabilised in both countries. The clergy and many of the faithful returned; most of the property of the SOC was returned to normal use and damaged and destroyed properties were restored.[101] The process of rebuilding several churches is still underway, notably the cathedral of theEparchy of Upper Karlovac inKarlovac.[102]

Owing to theKosovo War, after 1999 numerous Serbian Orthodox holy sites in Kosovo left occupied only by clergy. Since the arrival ofNATO troops in June 1999, 156 Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries have been damaged or destroyed.[103] In the aftermath of the2004 unrest in Kosovo, 35 Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries were burned or destroyed by Albanian mobs, and thousands of Serbs were forced to move from Kosovo due to the numerous attacks by Kosovo Albanians on Serbian churches and Serbs.[104]

The process of church reorganisation among theSerb diaspora and full reintegration of the Metropolitanate of NewGračanica was completed from 2009 to 2011. By that, full structural unity of SOC institutions in the diaspora was achieved.

Adherents

[edit]

According to theWorld Council of Churches and other sources there are 8 million adherents.[105][106] Higher estimates include around 9[107] or 12 million adherents.[108]

Based on the official census results in countries that encompass the territorial canonical jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church (the Serb autochthonous region of the Western Balkans), there are more than 8 million adherents of the Church. Orthodoxy is the largest single religious faith inSerbia with 5,387,426 adherents (81% of the population) according to the 2022 census,[109] and inMontenegro with around 320,000 (51% of the population). It is the second-largest faith inBosnia and Herzegovina with 31.2% of the population, and inCroatia with 4.4% of the population. Figures for eparchies abroad (Western Europe, North America, and Australia) are unknown although some estimates can be reached based on the size of theSerb diaspora, which numbers over two million people.

Structure

[edit]

The head of the Serbian Orthodox Church, thepatriarch, also serves as the head (metropolitan) of theMetropolitanate of Belgrade and Karlovci. The current patriarch,Porfirije, was inaugurated on 19 February 2021. Serbian Orthodox patriarchs use the styleHis Holiness the Archbishop ofPeć, Metropolitan of Belgrade andKarlovci, Serbian Patriarch.

The highest body of the SOC is theBishops' Council. It consists of the patriarch, the metropolitans, bishops, andvicars. It meets annually – between March and May. The Bishops' Council makes important decisions for the Church and elects the patriarch.

The executive body of the SOC is theHoly Synod. It has five members: four bishops and the patriarch.[110]The Holy Synod takes care of the everyday operation of the Church, holding meetings on a regular basis.

Eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Serbian autochthonous region of theWestern Balkans

Territorial organisation

[edit]
Further information:List of eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church

The territory of the Serbian Orthodox Church is divided into:[111][112]

Dioceses are further divided into episcopaldeaneries, each consisting of severalchurch congregations orparishes. Church congregations consist of one or more parishes. A parish is the smallest church unit – a communion of Orthodox faithful congregating at theHoly Eucharist with the parish priest at their head.

Constitution

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TheConstitution of the Serbian Orthodox Church (Serbian:Устав Српске православне цркве,romanized: Ustav Srpske pravoslavne crkve) is the basic ecclesiastical legal act of the Church. The first and only Constitution of the Church was adopted on 16 November 1931.[113] Two years earlier, the Law on the Serbian Orthodox Church was adopted.[114] Also, the election of theSP was prescribed by the state Law on the Election of the Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church.[115]

Two years after theend of World War II, and after changes in the Church's relations with the state, theHoly Synod of Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church made amendments to the Constitution, promulgated for the first time inGlasnik, the official newspaper of the SOC. The second edition of the Constitution was promulgated in 1957.[116]

Since then, the Constitution has been amended several times by constitutional decisions of the Holy Synod in order to achieve the mission of the Church as successfully as possible. Namely, the Church constitution should not be equated with the state constitution and defined as the highest general legal act in the Church. The Holy Synod makes decisions in organisational terms, and any such decision automatically means an amendment to the current Constitution. Even a two-thirds majority is not needed to make such decisions. On 2 July 2012 a constitutive session of the Commission of the Holy Synod of Bishops for the revision of the SOC Constitution was held, which was formed 16 June 2011. It was headed by theMetropolitan of Montenegro and the LittoralAmfilohije as president. Its task is to collect and systematise all the decisions of the Holy Synod of Bishops of the constitutional character from the previous period in order to be adequately included in the new Constitution.[117]

In addition to the Constitution, within the SOC itself there are other general ecclesiastical acts which, based on canonical tradition, regulate internal organisational ofSerbian Orthodox eparchies (dioceses) around the world.

Regulations

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According to the Constitution, ecclesiastical authority is spiritual, ecclesiastical-disciplinary and ecclesiastical-judicial, and canonically belongs only to the hierarchy.Hierarchy exercises ecclesiastical authority through its representatives and bodies. The government in the community with the clergy and the people through its representatives and bodies, regulates and manages property, endowment (foundation), fund, as well as other matters provided by the Constitution.[118]

The Constitution stipulates that the structure of the Serbian Orthodox Church is church-hierarchical and church-self-governing. There are the following Church authorities, bodies and organs:[119]

The SOC isepiscopal; its main administrative division isdiocese both in church-hierarchical and church-self-governing terms. Dioceses are further divided intoarchdioceses, each of which consists of several church communities and parishes. Theparish is the smallest unit in the church organisation. It is a community of believers that gathers at theDivine Liturgy and other services, led by the parish priest.

Doctrine and liturgy

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The Serbian Orthodox Church upholds theEastern Orthodox theology, shared by allEastern Orthodox Churches and based on doctrinal accomplishments of theSeven Ecumenical Councils. It is characterised bymonotheisticTrinitarianism, a belief in theIncarnation of theLogos (Son of God), a balancing ofcataphatic theology withapophatic theology, ahermeneutic defined bySacred Tradition, and a therapeuticsoteriology. In the fields of ecclesial organisation and administration, the SOC upholds traditions and principles ofEastern Orthodox ecclesiology.[120]

Liturgical traditions and practices of the SOC are based onEastern Orthodox worship.[121] Services cannot properly be conducted by a single person but must have at least one other person present. Usually, all of the services are conducted on a daily basis only in monasteries and cathedrals, whilst parish churches might only do the services on the weekend and major feast days. TheDivine Liturgy is the celebration of theEucharist. The Divine Liturgy is not celebrated on weekdays during the preparatory season ofGreat Lent. Communion is consecrated on Sundays and distributed during the week at theLiturgy of the Presanctified Gifts. Services, especially the Divine Liturgy, can only be performed once a day on any particular altar.[122][123][124]

A key part of the Serbian Orthodox religion is theKrsna Slava, the celebration of the familialpatron saint, placed into the Serbian Orthodox canon bySaint Sava.

Social issues

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The SOC upholds traditional views on modern social issues,[125] such asseparation of church and state (imposed since the abolition of the monarchy in 1945), andsocial equality.[126] Since all forms of priesthood are reserved only for men, the role of women in Holy Synod of the Serbian Orthodox Church administration is limited to specific activities, mainly in the fields of religious education and religious arts, including the participation in various forms of charity work.[127] Nevertheless, women are allowed to betonsured asnuns andabbesses.

Inter-Christian relations

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The SOC is infull communion with theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (which holds a special place of honour within Eastern Orthodoxy and serves as the seat for theEcumenical Patriarch, who enjoys the status offirst-among-equals) and all of the mainstream autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church bodies except theOrthodox Church of Ukraine. It has been a member of theWorld Council of Churches since 1965,[128] withPatriarch German even being elected to its central committee in 1968,[129] as well as of theConference of European Churches.

Art

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Architecture

[edit]
See also:Serbian architecture andSerbian Orthodox monasteries

Serbian medieval churches were built in the Byzantine spirit. TheRaška style refers to Serbian architecture from the 12th to the end of the 14th century,[130] exemplified by the monasteries ofStudenica,Hilandar, andŽiča.[131] TheVardar style, which is the typical one, was developed in the late 13th century combiningByzantine and Serbian influences to form a new architectural style (e.g.Gračanica,Peć). By the time of theSerbian Empire, the Serbian state had enlarged itself overMacedonia,Epirus andThessaly all the way to theAegean Sea, which resulted in stronger influences fromByzantine art tradition. TheMorava style refers to the period of the fall of Serbia under the Ottoman Empire, from 1371 to 1459 (e.g.Ravanica,Ljubostinja,Kalenić,Manasija).

During the 17th century, many of the Serbian Orthodox churches that were built inBelgrade took all the characteristics ofBaroque churches built in the Habsburg-occupied regions where Serbs lived. The churches usually had a bell tower, and a single nave building with theiconostasis inside the church covered withRenaissance-style paintings. These churches can be found across Belgrade andVojvodina, which were occupied by theAustrian Empire from 1717 to 1739, and on the border with Austria (laterAustria-Hungary) across theSava andDanube rivers from 1804 when Serbian statehood was re-established.

Icons

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Icons are replete with symbolism meant to convey far more meaning than simply the identity of the person depicted, and it is for this reason that Orthodox iconography has become an exacting science of copying older icons rather than an opportunity for artistic expression. The personal, idiosyncratic and creative traditions of Western Europeanreligious art are largely lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, whenRussian and Serbian icon painting was influenced by religious paintings and engravings from Europe.

Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely. Orthodox homes often likewise have icons hanging on the wall, usually together on an eastern facing wall, and in a central location where the family can pray together.

Insignia

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Flag of the Serbian Orthodox Church

TheSerbian tricolour with aSerbian cross is used as the official flag of the Serbian Orthodox Church, as defined in the Article 4 of the SOC Constitution.[110]

A number of other unofficial flag variants, some with variations of the cross, coat of arms, or both, exist.[132]

See also

[edit]
Part ofa series on the
Eastern Orthodox Church
Christ Pantocrator (Deesis mosaic detail)
Overview
Autocephalous jurisdictions
Autocephalous Churches who are officially part of the communion:

Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churchesde jure:

Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches:

Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church:


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  1. ^The ROCsevered full communion with the Ecumenical Patriarchate in 2018, and later severed full communion with theprimates of the Church of Greece, the Patriarchate of Alexandria, and the Church of Cyprus in 2020.
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