After deposing and killing the incumbent emperorDidius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generalsPescennius Niger andClodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at theBattle of Issus inCilicia. Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing theKingdom of Osroene as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at theBattle of Lugdunum inGaul. Following the consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against theParthian Empire, sacking their capitalCtesiphon in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to theTigris. He then enlarged and fortified theLimes Arabicus inArabia Petraea. In 202, he campaigned inAfrica andMauretania against theGaramantes, capturing their capitalGarama, and expanding theLimes Tripolitanus along the southern desert frontier of the empire.
With his second wife,Julia Domna, Severus had two sons; the elder,Caracalla, was proclaimedAugustus, or co-emperor, in 198, and the younger,Geta, in 209. Severus travelled toBritain in 208, strengtheningHadrian's Wall and reoccupying theAntonine Wall. In 209 he invadedCaledonia (modernScotland) with an army of 50,000 men[8] but his ambitions were cut short when he died of an infectious disease in early 211 atEboracum (modernYork). His sons, advised by Julia Domna, succeeded him, thus founding theSeveran dynasty. It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before theCrisis of the Third Century.
Born on 11 April 145 atLeptis Magna (in present-day Libya) as the son ofPublius Septimius Geta andFulvia Pia,[3] Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family ofequestrian rank. On his mother's side, he descended from the Italian Fulvii's and on his father side, Publius Septimius Geta, hailed from a family ofPunic origin.[9][10] He was described as "Libyan by race", by the Roman historian and senatorCassius Dio.[11] Due to his family background he is considered the first provincial emperor, as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin.[12] Severus's father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under the emperorAntoninus Piusr. 138–161. His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to thegens Fulvia, anItalianpatrician family that originated inTusculum.[13]
Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother,Publius Septimius Geta; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus's maternal cousin was thepraetorian prefect and consulGaius Fulvius Plautianus.[14] Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna and was a nativePunic speaker[15], but he was also educated inLatin and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus's education but, according toCassius Dio, the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons inoratory: at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech.[16]
Dynasticaureus of Septimius Severus, minted in 202. The reverse feature the portraits ofGeta (right),Julia Domna (centre) andCaracalla (left).[17] Inscription: SEVER[US] P[IUS] AVG[USTUS] P[ONTIFEX] M[AXIMUS], TR[IBUNUS] P[LEBIS] X, CO[N]S[UL] III / FELICITAS SAECVLI.
Severus sought a public career inRome in around 162. At the recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperorMarcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks.[18] Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within thecursus honorum and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus's career during the 160s met with some difficulties.[19]
It is likely that he served as avigintivir in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate.[19] At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney (Advocatus fisci).[20] However, he omitted themilitary tribunate from thecursus honorum and had to delay hisquaestorship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25.[19] To make matters worse, theAntonine Plague swept through the capital in 166.[21]
With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier.[21] According to theHistoria Augusta, a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted foradultery during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5December, he took office and was officially enrolled in theRoman Senate.[22] Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The Antonine Plague had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus's career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have.[23]
The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he was able to leave Africa,Mauri tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control ofSardiniaas compensation. Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of Sardinia.[24]
In 173, Severus's cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointedproconsul of the province ofAfrica Proconsularis and chose Severus as one of his twolegati pro praetore, a senior military appointment.[25] Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office astribune of the plebs, a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being thecandidatus of the emperor.[26]
About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, toPaccia Marciana, a woman from Leptis Magna.[27] He probably met her during his tenure aslegate under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliableHistoria Augusta claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years.[26]
Marciana died of natural causes around 186.[28] Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into the horoscopes of prospective brides. TheHistoria Augusta relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife.[27] This woman was an EmeseneSyrian namedJulia Domna. Her father,Julius Bassianus, descended from the ArabEmesene dynasty and served as ahigh priest to the local cult of the sun godElagabal.[29] Domna's older sister,Julia Maesa, would become the grandmother of the future emperorsElagabalus andAlexander Severus.[30]
Bassianus accepted Severus's marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married inLugdunum (modern-dayLyon, France), of which Severus was the governor.[31] The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy.[32] They had two sons,Lucius Septimius Bassianus (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4April 188 in Lugdunum) andPublius Septimius Geta (born 7March 189 in Rome).[33]
Busts of Septimius Severus (left) and Julia Domna (right),Munich Glyptotek
In 191, on the advice ofQuintus Aemilius Laetus,prefect of thePraetorian Guard,emperor Commodus appointed Severus as governor ofPannonia Superior.[34] At around this time he is described by the classicistKyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment".[35] Commodus was assassinated the following year.Pertinax was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by the Praetorian Guard in early 193.[36] In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus's legionXIV Gemina acclaimed him emperor atCarnuntum on 9 April.[37][36] Nearby legions, such asX Gemina atVindobona, soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy.[36]
Pertinax's successor in Rome,Didius Julianus, had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by the Senate and killed.[38] Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of thePraetorian Guard, filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions.[39][40]
The legions ofSyria had proclaimedPescennius Niger emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offerClodius Albinus, the powerful governor ofBritannia, who had probably supported Didius against him, the rank ofCaesar, which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at theBattle of Issus (194).[40]While campaigning againstByzantium, he ordered that the tomb of hisfellow-CarthaginianHannibal be covered with fine marble.[41]
He devoted the following year to suppressingMesopotamia and otherParthian vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his sonCaracalla as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After a short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19February 197 at theBattle of Lugdunum, with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed ofPannonian,Moesian andDacian legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire.[42][43][44]Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors).[45]
The Roman Empire in 210 after the conquests of Severus, showing Roman territory (purple) and Roman dependencies (light purple)Aureus minted in 193 by Severus to celebrateLegio XIVGemina Martia Victrix, the legion that proclaimed him emperor. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT[INAX] AVG. / LEG. XIIII CEM. M. V. – TR. P., CO[N]S.
In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to the east. He embarked atBrundisium and probably landed at the port ofAegeae inCilicia,[46] travelling on toSyria by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed theEuphrates.[47]Abgar IX, titular King ofOsroene but essentially only the ruler ofEdessa since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province,[48] handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus's expedition by providing archers.[49] KingKhosrov I of Armenia also sent hostages, money and gifts.[50]
Severus travelled on toNisibis, which his generalJulius Laetus had prevented from falling intoParthian hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan a more ambitious campaign.[51] The following year he led another, more successful campaign against theParthian Empire, reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given toPescennius Niger. His legions sacked the Parthian royal city ofCtesiphon and he annexed the northern half ofMesopotamia to the empire;[52][53] Severus took the titleParthicus Maximus, following the example ofTrajan.[54] However, he was unable to capture the fortress ofHatra, even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded theLimes Arabicus, building new fortifications in theArabian Desert fromBasie toDumatha.[55]
Severus's relations with theSenate were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with the help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption orconspiracy against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over the Parthians, he erected theArch of Septimius Severus in Rome.[56][57]
According to Cassius Dio,[58] however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect,Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus andJulia Domna, Severus's influential and powerful wife, which had a relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughterFulvia Plautilla was married to Severus's son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna andCaracalla accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of the two emperors.[59] One of the two followingpraefecti was the famous juristPapinian. Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife,Julia Domna, in the administration of the empire.[60]
Bronze head of Septimius Severus, from Asia Minor, c. 195–211 AD,Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Inscription: IMP. CAE. L. SEP. SEV. PERT. AVG. / LEG. XIIII, CEM M V – TRP COS.
Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged thePraetorian Guard,[39] which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99 mi) of the city on pain of death.[61] Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions.[62]
Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with the introduction of the three new legions: I, II and IIIParthica.[63] He garrisonedLegio II Parthica atAlbanum, only 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome.[62] He gave his soldiers adonative of a thousandsesterces (250denarii) each,[64] and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400denarii.[65]
Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed a military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere.[66]
At the beginning of Severus's reign,Trajan's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out.[67] Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt the need to promote religious harmony by promotingsyncretism.[68] He possibly issued an edict[69] that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity.[70]
A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and were traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community.[71] A decree by Severus against the Christians is mentioned in theHistoria Augusta,[69] an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.[72] Early church historianEusebius described Severus as a persecutor.[73] However, theChristian apologistTertullian stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians,[74] employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.[72] Some scholars think that Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in theRoman Martyrology as the martyrs ofMadauros,Charalambos andPerpetua and Felicity inRoman-ruled Africa. These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus.[75]
The expansion of the African frontier during the reign of Severus (medium tan). Severus even briefly held a military presence in Garama in 203 (light tan).
In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conqueringCaledonia. Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign.[78] Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number.[79]
He strengthenedHadrian's Wall and reconquered theSouthern Uplands up to theAntonine Wall, which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force,[80] Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps ofAgricola of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such asCarpow.[81]
Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact, the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory.[82]
By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties.[83] The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of theCentral Lowlands (of what is now Scotland)[78][84] as evidenced by the extensive Severan-era fortifications there.[85] The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with theMaeatae.[86] Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even the babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction."[80][87]
Severus's campaign was cut short when he fell ill.[88][89] He withdrew toEboracum (modernYork, England) and died there in 211.[4] Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall.[89]
Severus is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211.[90] On his death, Severus wasdeified by the Senate and succeeded by his sons,Caracalla andGeta, who were advised by his wifeJulia Domna.[91] Severus was buried in theMausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.
Large bronze statue of Septimius Severus depicted in heroic nudity,Cyprus Museum.
Septimius Severus on his deathbed next to his son Caracalla byJean-Baptiste Greuze (c. 1769).
By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over 5 million square kilometres, which scholars likeDavid L. Kennedy, Lukas De Blois, andDerrick Riley state expanded the empire to its greatest physical extent.[92][93][94][95][96][97]
Edward Gibbon famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity."[98] His enlargement of theLimes Tripolitanus securedAfrica, the agricultural base of the empire where he was born.[99] His victory over theParthian Empire was for a time decisive, securingNisibis andSingara for the empire and establishing astatus quo of Roman dominance in the region until 251.[100] His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporariesCassius Dio andHerodianus: in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain the new and better-paid army.[101][102] The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors.[93]
To maintain his enlarged military, he debased theRoman currency. Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of thedenarius from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased the denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively.[103] Severus's currencydebasement was the largest since the reign ofNero, compromising the long-term strength of the economy.[104]
Severus was also distinguished for his buildings. Apart from thetriumphal arch in the Roman Forum carrying his full name, he also built theSeptizodium in Rome. He enriched his native city ofLeptis Magna, including commissioninga triumphal arch on the occasion of his visit of 203.[57][105]
^Birley, Anthony (7 March 2016)."Septimius Severus, Lucius, Roman emperor, 193–211 CE".Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved8 October 2025.The Septimii were of Punic origin, his mother's family (Fulvii) of Italian descent.
^Adam, Alexander,Classical biography,Google eBookArchived 10 June 2016 at theWayback Machine, p.182:FULVIUS, the name of a "gens" which originally came from Tusculum (Cic. Planc. 8).
^Collingwood, R. G. (1998) [1936].Roman Britain and the English settlements. Myres, J. N. L. (John Nowell Linton). New York, N.Y.: Biblo and Tannen.ISBN978-0-8196-1160-4.OCLC36750306.
^Kröger, Jens (1993). "Ctesiphon".Archived copy.Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 4. pp. 446–448.Archived from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved9 April 2025.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Asante, Molefi Kete and Shanza Ismail, "Rediscovering the 'Lost' Roman Caesar: Septimius Severus the African and Eurocentric Historiography."Journal of Black Studies 40, no. 4 (March 2010): 606–618
^abPerkins, J. B. Ward (December 1951). "The Arch of Septimius Severus at Lepcis Magna".Archaeology.4 (4):226–231.
^Cassius Dio,Roman History, Book 76, Sections 14 and 15.
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Lichtenberger, Achim (2011).Severus Pius Augustus: Studien zur sakralen Repräsentation und Rezeption der Herrschaft des Septimius Severus und seiner Familie (193–211 n. chr.). Impact of Empire. Vol. 14. Leiden; Boston:Brill.ISBN978-90-04-20192-7.
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