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Senate

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Upper house of a bicameral legislature
"Senator" and "Sen." redirect here. For other uses, seeSenator (disambiguation),Sen (disambiguation), andSenate (disambiguation).

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Cicero addressing theCatilinarian conspiracy in theRoman Senate
The debating chamber of theSenate of the Czech Republic in theWallenstein Palace

Asenate is adeliberative assembly, often theupper house orchamber of abicamerallegislature. The name comes from theancientRoman Senate (Latin:Senatus), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin:senex meaning "the elder" or "old man") and therefore considered wiser and more experienced members of thesociety orruling class. However the Roman Senate was not the ancestor or predecessor of modern parliamentarism in any sense, because the Roman senate was not a de jurelegislative body.[1]

Many countries have an assembly named asenate, composed ofsenators who may beelected, appointed, haveinherited the title, or gained membership by other methods, depending on the country. Modern senates typically serve to provide a chamber of "sober second thought" to considerlegislation passed by alower house, whose members are usually elected. Most senates have asymmetrical duties and powers compared with their respective lower house meaning they have special duties, for example to fill important political positions or to pass special laws. Conversely many senates have limited powers in changing or stopping bills under consideration and efforts to stall or veto a bill may be bypassed by the lower house or another branch of government.[2]

Overview

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The modern wordsenate is derived from theLatin wordsenātus (senate), which comes fromsenex, 'elder man'.[3] A member or legislator of a senate is calledsenator. The Latin wordsenator was adopted into English withno change in spelling. Its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization, in which advisory or decision-making powers are reserved for the eldest men. For the same reason, the wordsenate is correctly used when referring to any powerful authority characteristically composed by the eldest members of a community, as a deliberative body of a faculty in an institution of higher learning is often called a senate. This form of adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the decision-making process to be thorough, which could take a long period of time. The original senate was theRoman Senate, which lasted until at least CE 603,[4] although various efforts to revive it were made in Medieval Rome. In theEastern Roman Empire, theByzantine Senate continued until theFourth Crusade, circa 1202–1204. The female formsenatrix also existed.

TheSenate of the United States in session

Modern democratic states withbicameralparliamentary systems are sometimes equipped with a senate, often distinguished from an ordinary parallellower house, known variously as the "House of Representatives", "House of Commons", "Chamber of Deputies", "National Assembly", "Legislative Assembly", or "House of Assembly", by electoral rules. This may include minimum age required for voters and candidates, one house employing a proportional voting system and the other being elected on amajoritarian orplurality basis, and an electoral basis orcollegium. Typically, the senate is referred to as the upper house and has a smaller membership than the lower house. In somefederal states senates also exist at the subnational level. In theUnited States, most states and territories have senates, with the exception ofNebraska,Guam, and theU.S. Virgin Islands (whose legislatures are unicameral bodies called the "Legislature" but whose members refer to themselves as "senators") and theDistrict of Columbia (whose unicameral legislature is called the Council). There is also theUS Senate at the federal level. Similarly inArgentina, in addition to theSenate at federal level, eight of the country'sprovinces,Buenos Aires,Catamarca,Corrientes,Entre Ríos,Mendoza,Salta,San Luis (since 1987) andSanta Fe, have bicameral legislatures with a Senate.Córdoba andTucumán changed tounicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively.

InAustralia andCanada, only the upper house of the federal parliament is known as the Senate. AllAustralian states other thanQueensland have an upper house known as aLegislative council. Several Canadian provinces also once had a Legislative Council, but these have all been abolished, the last beingQuebec'sLegislative council in 1968.

InGermany, the last senate of astate parliament, theBavarian Senate, was abolished in 2000.[5]

Senate membership can be determined either through elections or appointments. For example, elections are held every three years for half the membership of theSenate of the Philippines, the term of a senator being six years.[6] In contrast, members of theCanadian Senate are appointed by theGovernor General upon the recommendation of thePrime Minister of Canada, holding the office until they resign, are removed, or retire at the mandatory age of 75.

Alternative meanings

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The termssenate andsenator, however, do not necessarily refer to a second chamber of a legislature:

List of national senates

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Defunct and unestablished senates

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See also:List of abolished upper houses
Abolished in favor of
unicameral system
Legislature disbanded
  • 603Roman Republic/Empire
  • 1204Byzantine Empire
  • 1865Confederate States of America
  • 1831–1879Montenegro
  • 1931–1941Yugoslavia
  • 1939Czechoslovakia
  • 1947British Burma
  • 1958Cuba
  • 1959Iraq
  • 1961South Korea
  • 1969Libya
  • 1972Northern Ireland
  • 1972Philippines (restored in 1987)[Note 5]
  • 1974Ethiopia
  • 1975South Vietnam
  • 1979Rhodesia
  • Newconstitution adopted
  • 1847Costa Rica[Note 6]
  • 1866Sweden
  • 1871Costa Rica[Note 6]
  • 1886El Salvador[Note 7]
  • 1890Japan
  • 1901–1903Serbia
  • 1917Russia
  • 1919Costa Rica[Note 6]
  • 1919Finland
  • 1926Portugal
  • 1928Albania
  • 1930Bahia,Brazil
  • 1930Ceará,Brazil
  • 1930Pernambuco,Brazil
  • 1930São Paulo,Brazil
  • 1935Philippines (restored in 1945)[Note 5]
  • 1937Ireland
  • 1949Malta
  • 1950Indonesia (restored in 2001 asRegional Representative Council)
  • 1964British Guiana (now Guyana)
  • 1970Ceylon
  • 1978Ecuador
  • 1978Philippines (restored in 1987)[Note 5]
  • 1979Iran
  • 1979Nicaragua
  • 1982Turkey[Note 8]
  • 1993Peru
  • 2000Venezuela
  • 2012Senegal
  • 2013Fiji
  • Senate unestablished, though foreseen by the Constitution
  • 1989Lebanon
  • 1994Malawi
  • 1995Georgia
  • 2004Iraq
  • 2015Central African Republic
  • See also

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    Notes

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    1. ^AGreek Senate was reestablished in 1927, and abolished again in 1935.
    2. ^The Kenyan Senate and House of Representatives were combined into a single National Assembly, under the 2010 Constitution, the Senate is the upper house, with the National Assembly becoming the lower house.
    3. ^A South African Senate was reconvened between 1994 and 1997, before being replaced by theNational Council of Provinces.
    4. ^TheControl Yuan existed as a parliamentary body in the1947 Chinese constitution which were elected by provincial legislators for a duration of 6 years. After theChinese Civil War, the government was transferred to Taiwan. In the constitutional reforms of the 1990s, the Control Yuan is now a purely auditory body, and its 29 members are nominated by the president, and confirmed by the Legislative Yuan for a duration of 6 years. Since 2005, theLegislative Yuan is now the nation's sole parliamentary body.
    5. ^abcThe Philippine Senate was abolished and restored twice. A new constitution in 1935 abolished the Senate but an amendment in 1941 restored it in 1945. In 1972, Congress was prevented from convening, and a passage of a new constitution in 1973 confirmed the abolition of the Senate; an approval of a new constitution in 1987 restored it.
    6. ^abcThe1844 Constitution of the Republic of Costa RicaArchived 2011-01-24 at theWayback Machine provided for a Senate; theConstitution of 1847Archived 2014-11-29 at theWayback Machine, which replaced it, established a unicameral legislature. The Senate was reestablished by theConstitution of 1859Archived 2014-11-29 at theWayback Machine; the country reverted to unicameralism with the adoption of the1871 ConstitutionArchived 2014-11-29 at theWayback Machine. Costa Rica briefly restored the Senate and bicameralism with the adoption of the1917 ConstitutionArchived 2014-11-29 at theWayback Machine, but that constitution was abrogated in 1919, whereupon the 1871 Constitution was restored; it remained in effect until 1949, when Costa Rica adopted its present Constitution, which provides for a unicameral legislature.
    7. ^The1841 Constitution of the Republic of El Salvador established a bicameral legislature with a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. The 1886 constitution replaced the bicameral legislature with a unicameral one.[10]
    8. ^The Turkish Senate did not function after the1980 Turkish coup d'état and was legally abolished with the adoption of the 1982Constitution of Turkey.

    References

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    1. ^Encyclopedia Americana. Americana Corporation. 1965.
    2. ^Bicameral Legislatures: An international Comparison. Betty Drexhage. The Hague. 2015.
    3. ^Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary:senate
    4. ^Levillain, Philippe (2002).The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. p. 1047.ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2.
    5. ^Keating, Michael (October 2013).Rescaling the European State: The Making of Territory and the Rise of the Meso. OUP Oxford. p. 143.ISBN 978-0-19-969156-2.
    6. ^Samonte, Severino (April 26, 2022)."Why only 12 are elected to the 24-member Senate".pna.gov.ph. Retrieved2024-10-23.
    7. ^SeeSenate of Berlin,Senate of Bremen andSenate of Hamburg.
    8. ^Removal of Jersey senator roles given final approval,BBC News, 22 April 2021
    9. ^Zulfa, Mariyam."'Developing Constitutional Culture in the Context of Constitutional Implementation': The Case of the Maldives' First Democratic Constitution"(PDF).law.unimelb.edu.au. Melbourne Forum on Constitution-Building.
    10. ^Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.),El Salvador: A Country Study (1990), p. 144

    External links

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    Wikisource has the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannica article "Senate".
    Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Senate&oldid=1277478866"
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