Selim I (Ottoman Turkish:سليم الأول;Turkish:I. Selim; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), also known asSelim the Grim orSelim the Resolute[3] (Turkish:Yavuz Sultan Selim), was thesultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520.[4] Despite lasting only eight years, his reign is notable for the enormous expansion of the Empire, particularly hisconquest between 1516 and 1517 of the entireMamluk Sultanate ofEgypt, which included all of theLevant,Hejaz,Tihamah and Egypt itself. On the eve of his death in 1520, theOttoman Empire spanned about 3.4 million km2 (1.3 million sq mi), having grown by seventy percent during Selim's reign.[4]
Selim's conquest of the Middle Eastern heartlands of theMuslim world, and particularly his assumption of the role of guardian of thepilgrimage routes to Mecca and Medina, established theOttoman Empire as the pre-eminent Muslim state. His conquests dramatically shifted the empire's geographical and cultural center of gravity away from the Balkans and toward the Middle East. By the eighteenth century, Selim's conquest of theMamluk Sultanate had come to be romanticized as the moment when the Ottomans seized leadership over the rest of the Muslim world, and consequently Selim is popularly remembered as the first legitimate OttomanCaliph, although stories of an official transfer of the caliphal office from theMamluk Abbasid dynasty to the Ottomans were a later invention.[5]
Selim was born inAmasya on 10 October 1470 as the son of Şehzade Bayezid (laterBayezid II) during the reign of his grandfatherMehmed II. His mother wasGülbahar Hatun, aPontic Greek concubine, who was formerly confused withAyşe Hatun, another consort of Bayezid and daughter ofAlaüddevle Bozkurt Bey, the eleventh ruler of theDulkadirids.[6][7][8] In 1479 at the age of nine, he was sent by his grandfather toIstanbul to be circumcised along with his brothers. In 1481, his grandfatherMehmed II died and his father becameSultanBayezid II. Six years later in 1487, he was sent by his father toTrabzon to serve there as governor.
Shah Ismail's brother Ibrahim marched onTrabzon, which belonged to the Ottomans, with an army of 3,000 in 1505.[9][10] Thereupon, Selim went on an expedition against Ibrahim. With 450 soldiers under the command of Selim, he repelled the army of 3,000 under the command of Ibrahim and chased the Safavids to Erzincan.[11][page needed] As a result of this expedition, Shah Ismail complained about Selim to Sultan Bayezid II, but he did not get any results.[11][page needed]
In 1507, theSafavids under the command ofShah Ismail organized an expedition againstAla al-Dawla Bozkurt ofDulkadir. During this expedition, Shah Ismail, who had crossed intoOttoman territory without permission, also includedTurkmen warriors who were Ottoman subjects in his army.[12] These actions of Shah Ismail were a violation of Ottoman sovereignty.Bayezid II did not respond to these violations, but Selim, the governor ofTrabzon at the time, attackedErzincan andBayburt, which belonged to the Safavids, and defeated the 10,000 men Safavid army sent by Shah Ismail in Erzincan.[13]
After Selim's last actions, Shah Ismail sent an army toTrabzon again in 1510. This army, under the command of Shah Ismail's brother, marched to Trabzon. However, Selim, who was in Trabzon, defeated theSafavids.[11][page needed]
In 1507 Selim successfully defeated the Safavid army at Erzincan. The following year, in 1508, he organised an attack against Georgia. He invaded and captured western Georgia bringing Imereti and Guria under Ottoman rule. During his campaign he enslaved a large number of women, girls and boys, reportedly more than 10,000 Georgians.[14]
As a result of the struggle for the throne that Selim started against his father, Sultan Bayezid II, in 1512, a battle was fought between the parties nearTekirdag. Selim lost the battle.
By 1512Şehzade Ahmed was the favorite candidate to succeed his father. Bayezid, who was reluctant to continue his rule over the empire, announced Ahmed asheir apparent to the throne. Angered by this announcement, Selimrebelled, and while he lost the first battle against his father's forces, Selim ultimately dethroned his father.
Selim commanded 30,000 men, whereas his father led 40,000. Selim only escaped with 3,000 men. This marked the first time that an Ottoman prince openly rebelled against his father with an army of his own.[11] Selim ordered the exile of Bayezid to a distant "sanjak",Dimetoka (in the north-east of present-day Greece). Bayezid died immediately thereafter.[15]
When Selim ascended to the throne, his first task was to suppress his brother Ahmed's rebellion. The army under the command of Selim and the army under the command of Prince Ahmed met near Yenişehir. Ahmed was defeated in the battle between the two sides. Selim put his brothers (Şehzade Ahmet andŞehzade Korkut) and nephews to death upon his accession. His nephewŞehzade Murad, son of the legal heir to the throne Şehzade Ahmed, fled to the neighboringSafavid Empire after his expected support failed to materialize.[16] This fratricidal policy was motivated by bouts of civil strife that had been sparked by the antagonism between Selim's father and his uncle,Cem Sultan, and between Selim himself and his brother Ahmet.
After many centuries of calm, theAlevi population began an open rebellion while Selim I was the sultan, and they seem to have been backed by theQizilbash ofSafavid Iran. This led to harsh reprisals against the Alevis by theOttoman Army under Selim I.
Early in his reign, Selim created a list of all Shiites ages 7 to 70 in a number of central Anatolian cities including Tokat, Sivas and Amasya. As Selim marched through these cities, his forces rounded up and executed all the Shiites they could find. Most of them were beheaded. The massacre was the largest in Ottoman history until the end of the 19th century.[22]
In 1514, Selim I attacked the Safavid Empire to stop the spread of Shiism into Ottoman dominions. Selim and Ismā'il had exchanged a series of belligerent letters prior to the attack. On his march to face Ismā'il, Selim had 50,000 Alevis massacred, seeing them as enemies of the Ottoman Empire.[23] Selim I defeated Ismā'il at theBattle of Chaldiran in 1514.[24] Ismā'il's army was more mobile and his soldiers better prepared, but the Ottomans prevailed due in large part to their efficient modern army, possession of artillery,black powder andmuskets. Ismā'il was wounded and almost captured in battle, and Selim I entered the Iranian capital ofTabriz in triumph on 5 September,[25] but did not linger. The Battle of Chaldiran was of historical significance: the reluctance of Shah Ismail to accept the advantages of modern firearms and the importance of artillery proved decisive.[26] After the battle, Selim, referring to Ismail, stated that his adversary was: "Always drunk to the point of losing his mind and totally neglectful of the affairs of the state".[27]
Following their victory, the Ottomans captured the Safavid capital city ofTabriz on 7 September,[28] which they first pillaged and then evacuated. That week's Friday sermon in mosques throughout the city was delivered in Selim's name.[11][page needed] Selim was however unable to press on after Tabriz due to the discontent amongst the janissaries.[28] The Ottoman Empire successfully annexed Eastern Anatolia (encompassingWestern Armenia) and Upper Mesopotamia from the Safavids. These areas changed hands several times over the following decades; however, the Ottoman hold would not be set until the 1555 Peace of Amasya following theOttoman–Safavid War (1532–1555). Effective governmental rule andeyalets would not be established over these regions until the 1639Treaty of Zuhab.
Miniature depicting the occurring battle at the time inDabiq, fought between the Ottomans and the Mamluk armies, around 1516; miniature painting byHoca Sadeddin Efendi.
Selim I launched an attack on the Mamluks in 1516. The Ottoman army and the Mamluk army met near Marj Dabiq. The Mamluk army advanced and on 20 August made camp at the plain of MarjDabiq, aday's journey north ofAleppo. There, al-Ghawri and his men awaited the enemy's approach on this plain, where the sultanate's fate would soon be decided.[29] According to the History of Egypt composed byMuḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Iyas, the Mamluks arranged themselves with the Sultan occupying the center column. Sibay, the Governor of Damascus, commanded the right flank, and Khai'r Bey, governor of Aleppo, took the left.
The marshal Sûdûn Adjami was the first to enter combat, followed by Sibay, leading an experienced corps of veteran Mamluk warriors. They rushed into battle and managed to kill several thousand Turkish soldiers in the first hours of fighting. This advantage forced the opposite Ottoman wing to begin a withdrawal, and the Mamluk forces under Sibay succeeded in taking several pieces of artillery and capturing some fusiliers. Selim considered retreat or requesting a truce.[30]
It was at this point that the battle turned against the Mamluks. A rumor began to spread that al-Ghawri had ordered the recruits to hold their position, avoid combat, and leave the fighting to the veteran soldiers who were already engaged in battle. When Marshall Sûdûn Adjami and Sibay, who were leading the attack, were suddenly killed, panic broke out in the Mamluks' advancing right flank. Meanwhile, Khai'r Bey, in command of the left flank, called for a retreat. The fact that his forces were the first to quit the field was considered evidence of the man's betrayal.
Ibn Iyas offered the following account of the Mamluk defeat:
The sultan stood under his standard and called to his soldiers: "Aghas! This is the moment to take heart! Fight, and I will reward you!" But no one listened and the men fled from the battle. "Pray to God to give us victory!" Called al-Ghawri. This is the moment for prayer." But he found neither support nor defenders. He then began to feel an unquenchable fire. This was a particularly hot day, and an unusual fog of dust had risen between the armies. It was the day of God's anger directed against the Egyptian army, which stopped fighting. At the worst moment, and with the situation growing worse, the emir Timur Zardkash feared for the safety of the battle standard, lowered and stowed it, then came to find the sultan. He said to him: "Lord Sultan, the Ottoman army has defeated us. Save yourself and flee to Aleppo." When the sultan realized this, he was gripped by a sort of paralysis that affected the side of his body, and his jaw dropped open. He asked for water, which was brought to him in a golden goblet. He drank some, turned his horse to flee, advanced two paces, and fell from his saddle. After that, little by little, he surrendered his soul.[30]
Selim I, welcomed by the inhabitants as a deliverer from the excesses of the Mamluks, enteredAleppo in triumph.[31] He received the Abbasid caliph warmly, but upbraided the Islamic judges and jurists for their failure to check Mamluk misrule. Joined by Khai'r Bey and other Egyptian officers, he proceeded to theCitadel.[32]
From Aleppo, he marched with his forces toDamascus, where terror prevailed. Beyond some attempts to protect the city by flooding the plain around, the remnants of the Mamluk forces had done nothing substantial to oppose the enemy. Discord amongst the emirs had paralyzed the army and prevented any decisive action that might have affected the subsequent course of events.[33] Some of al-Ghawri's lieutenants supported Emir Janberdi Al-Ghazali as the new sultan, but others favoured the deceased ruler's son.[34] As theOttomans approached, however, resistance dissolved, as the remaining forces either went over to their side or fled toEgypt. Selim I entered Damascus in mid-October, and the inhabitants readily surrendered to the conquerors.
Sultan Tuman bay II now resolved himself to march out as far asSalahia, and there meet the Turks wearied by the desert march;[35] however, at the last he yielded to his Emirs who entrenched themselves at Ridanieh a little way out of the city.[35] By this time, the Ottomans were crossing theSinai Peninsula and having reachedArish, were marching unopposed by Salahia andBilbeis toKhanqah;[35] on 20 January they reached Birkat al Hajj, a few hours from the Capital. Two days later the main body confronted theEgyptian entrenchment, while a party crossing Mocattam Hill took them in the flank. The Battle of Ridanieh was fought 22 January 1517.[35] With a band of devoted followers, Tuman threw himself into the midst of the Ottoman ranks, and even reached Sinan Pasha's tent and personally killed him, thinking he was Selim.[35] But in the end the Egyptians were routed, and fled two miles up theNile. The Ottomans then entered the City ofCairo unopposed.[35] They took theCitadel and slew the entire Circassian garrison, while all around the streets became the scene of terrible outrage. Selim I himself occupied an island close to Bulac.[35] The following day his Vizier, entering the city, endeavored to stop the wild rapine of the troops; and the CaliphAl-Mutawakkil III, who had followed in Selim's train, led the public service invoking blessing on his name. The Caliph's prayer as given byIbn Ayas.[citation needed]
O Lord, uphold the Sultan, Monarch both of land and the two Seas; Conqueror of both Hosts; King of both Iracs [sic]; Minister of both Holy cities; the great Prince Selim Shah! Grant him Thy heavenly aid and glorious victories ! O King of the present and the future, Lord of the Universe![35]
A modern painting depicting Selim I during the Egypt campaign, located in Army Museum, Istanbul
After thebattle of Ridaniya (23 January 1517) Selim encamped on the island of Vustaniye (or Burac) facing Cairo, the capital. But he didn't enter Cairo. BecauseTumanbay II the sultan of the Mamluks as well as Kayıtbay another leader of the Mamluks had managed to escape, Selim decided to concentrate on arresting the leaders before entering Cairo. Thus he sent only a vanguard regiment to Cairo on 26 January. Although the regiment was able to enter the capital without much fighting, the same night Tumanbay also secretly came to the capital. With the assistance of some Cairo citizens, he raided the Ottoman forces in the capital and began controlling Cairo. After hearing the news of Tumanbay's presence in Cairo, Selim sent hisJanissaries to the city. After several days' fighting the Ottoman forces entered the city on 3 February 1517. Selim entered the city and sent messages of victory (Turkish:Zafername; "Book of Victory") to other rulers about the conquest of Cairo. Nevertheless, the leaders of the Mamluks were still on the loose.[36]
Tumanbay escaped from Cairo and tried to organize a new army composed of Egyptians together with what was left out of the Mamluk army. His army was smaller in size and capacity compared to the Ottoman army. But he was planning to raid Selim's camp on Vustatiye island. However, Selim heard about his plan and sent a force on Tumanbay to forestall his plans. After some small-scale clashes, Tumanbay was arrested on 26 March 1517. Selim's initial decision was to send Mamluk notables to İstanbul. But after a while, he changed his decision. Tumanbay and the other notable Mamluks were executed on 13 April 1517 at theBab Zuweila by a former Mamluk commander who had switched sides.[37]
The Battle ofCairo was an attempt by Sultan Tuman Bay II's forces to liberate Cairo fromOttoman rule in January 1517.[38] Although theMamluks were successful in the first raid, they were later defeated when Selim I personally took control of the Ottoman army and lost control of the city again.[13] Realizing that he could no longer resist, SultanTuman Bay retreated to the Giza region. After a two-month pursuit, he was captured on March 30 and executed in Cairo on April 13.[39]
Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula
Ottoman painting showing the head of Mamluk Sultanal-Ghuri being remitted to Selim I
Sultan Selim then conquered theMamluk Sultanate of Egypt, defeating the Mamluk Egyptians first at theBattle of Marj Dabiq (24 August 1516), and then at theBattle of Ridanieh (22 January 1517). This led to the Ottoman annexation of the entire sultanate, fromSyria andPalestine inSham, toHejaz andTihamah in theArabian Peninsula, and ultimatelyEgypt itself. This permitted Selim to extend Ottoman power to the Muslim holy cities ofMecca andMedina, hitherto under Egyptian rule. Rather than style himself theḤākimü'l-Ḥaremeyn, orThe Ruler of The Two Holy Cities, he accepted the more pious titleḪādimü'l-Ḥaremeyn, orThe Servant of The Two Holy Cities.[15][40]
The lastAbbasidcaliph,al-Mutawakkil III, was residing in Cairo as a Mamluk puppet at the time of the Ottoman conquest. He was subsequently sent into exile in Istanbul. In the eighteenth century, a story emerged claiming that he had officially transferred his title to theCaliphate to Selim at the time of the conquest. In fact, Selim did not make any claim to exercise the sacred authority of the office of caliph, and the notion of an official transfer was a later invention.[5]
After conquering Damascus in 1516, Selim ordered the restoration of the tomb ofIbn Arabi (d. 1240), a famousSufi master who was highly revered among Ottoman Sufis.[41]
Mamluk culture and social organization persisted at a regional level, and the hiring and education of Mamluk "slave" soldiers continued, but the ruler of Egypt was an Ottoman governor protected by an Ottomanmilitia.[42][43] The fall of the Mamluk Sultanate effectively put an end to thePortuguese–Mamluk naval war, but the Ottomans then took over the attempts to stop Portuguese expansion in theIndian Ocean.
The conquest of the Mamluk Empire also opened up the territories ofAfrica to the Ottomans. During the 16th century, Ottoman power expanded further west of Cairo, along the coasts of northern Africa. The corsairHayreddin Barbarossa established a base inAlgeria, and later accomplished theConquest of Tunis in 1534.[42]
Following his capture in Cairo, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III was brought to Constantinople, where later tradition claims he ceded his office ascaliph to the Ottomans.[44] This established theOttoman Caliphate, with the sultan as its head, thus transferring religious authority from Cairo to the Ottoman throne.[45]
The conquest of the Mamluks was the largest military venture that which any of the Ottoman sultans had ever attempted on, specifically whose first to declared war on them was Selim I himself. In addition, the conquest has put the Ottomans in control of two considered-largest, notable cities situated in Africa, the Middle East and in Europe at the time, generallyConstantinople and Cairo. Its not since the height of the Roman Empire conquering in aggregating conquest of territories, thus controlling several seas such as theBlack,Red,Caspian, andMediterranean (Mare Nostrum) seas, governed by a single empire.[11][page needed]
The conquest of Egypt proved extremely profitable for the empire as it produced more tax revenue than any other Ottoman territory and supplied about 100% of all food consumed. However,Mecca andMedina were the most important of all the cities conquered since it officially made Selim and his descendants the Caliphs of the entire Muslim world until the early 20th century.[11][page needed]
Selim I on his deathbedThetürbe of Selim I in his mosque
A planned campaign westward was cut short when Selim was overwhelmed by sickness and subsequently died in the ninth year of his reign aged 49. Officially, it is said that Selim succumbed to a mistreatedcarbuncle. Some historians, however, suggest that he died ofcancer or that his physician poisoned him.[47] Other historians have noted that Selim's death coincided with a period of plague in the empire, and have added that several sources imply that Selim himself suffered from the disease.
On 22 September 1520 Selim I's eight-year reign came to an end. Selim died and was brought to Istanbul, so he could be buried inYavuz Selim Mosque, which his son and successor, SultanSuleiman I, commissioned in memory of his father.[48][49]
Yavuz Selim Mosque was commissioned by the Ottoman sultanSuleiman I in memory of his father Selim I, who died in 1520. The architect was Alaüddin (Acem Alisi).[50]
By most accounts, Selim had a fiery temper and had very high expectations of those below him. Several of his viziers were executed for various reasons. A famous anecdote relates how another vizier playfully asked the Sultan for some preliminary notice of his doom so that he might have time to put his affairs in order. The Sultan laughed and replied that indeed he had been thinking of having the vizier killed but had no one fit to take his place, otherwise he would gladly oblige. A popular Ottoman curse was "May you be a vizier of Selim's!" in reference to the number of viziers he had executed.[51]
Selim was one of the empire's most successful and respected rulers, being energetic and hardworking. During his short eight years of ruling, he accomplished momentous success. Despite the length of his reign, many historians agree that Selim prepared the Ottoman Empire to reach its zenith under the reign of his son and successor,Suleiman the Magnificent.[52]
Selim was bilingual in Turkish and Persian, with the Ottoman literary criticLatifî (died 1582) noting that he was "very fond of speaking Persian".[53][54] He was also a distinguished poet who wrote both Turkish and Persian verse[55] under the nicknameMahlas Selimi; collections of hisPersian poetry are extant today.[52]
In a letter to his rival, ShahIsmail I, while equating himself withAlexander, Selim calls Ismail the "Darius of our days".[56]Paolo Giovio, in a work written forCharles V, says that Selim holds Alexander the Great andJulius Caesar in the highest esteem above all the generals of old.[57]
While marching into theSafavid Empire in 1514, Selim's troops suffered from the scorched-earth tactics of Shah Ismail.[60] The sultan hoped to lure Ismail into an open battle before his troops starved to death, and began writing insulting letters to the Shah, accusing him of cowardice:
They, who by perjuries seize scepters ought not to skulk from danger, but their breast ought, like the shield, to be held out to encounter peril; they ought, like the helm, to affront the foeman's blow.
Ismail responded to Selim's third message, quoted above, by having an envoy deliver a letter accompanied by a box of opium. The Shah's letter insultingly implied that Selim's prose was the work of an unqualified writer on drugs. Selim was enraged by the Shah's denigration of his literary talent and ordered the Persian envoy to be torn to pieces.[61]
Copied of Selim's letters excerpting from original Selim I letters written by his companion,Feridun Ahmed Bey.
Outside of their military conflicts, Selim I and Shah Ismail clashed on the economic front as well. Opposed to Shah Ismail's adherence to the Shia sect of Islam (contrasting his Sunni beliefs), Selim I and his father before him "did not really accept his basic political and religious legitimacy,"[62] beginning the portrayal of the Safavids in Ottoman chronicles askuffar.[63] After the Battle of Chaldiran, Selim I's minimal tolerance for Shah Ismail disintegrated, and he began a short era of closed borders with the Safavid Empire.
Selim I wanted to use the Ottoman Empire's central location to completely cut the ties between Shah Ismail's Safavid Empire and the rest of the world.[64] Even though the raw materials for important Ottoman silk production at that time came from Persia rather than developed within the Ottoman Empire itself,[65] he imposed a strict embargo on Iranian silk in an attempt to collapse their economy.[64] For a short amount of time, the silk resources were imported via the Mamluk territory of Aleppo, but by 1517, Selim I had conquered the Mamluk state and the trade fully came to a standstill.[66] So strict was this embargo that, "merchants who had been incautious enough not to immediately leave Ottoman territory when war was declared had their goods taken away and were imprisoned,"[66] and to emphasize frontier security, sancaks along the border between the two empires were given exclusively to Sunnis and those who did not have any relationship with the Safavid-sympathizing Kızılbaş.[67] Iranian merchants were barred from entering the borders of the Ottoman Empire under Selim I. Shah Ismail received revenue via customs duties, therefore after the war to demonstrate his commitment to their thorny rivalry, Selim I halted trade with the Safavids[66]—even at the expense of his empire's own silk industry and citizens.
This embargo and closed borders policy was reversed quickly by his son Suleyman I after Selim I's death in 1520.[66]
Babur's early relations with the Ottomans were poor because Selim I provided Babur's Uzbek rivalUbaydullah Khan with powerfulmatchlocks andcannons.[68] In 1507, when ordered to accept Selim I as his rightfulsuzerain, Babur refused and gatheredQizilbash servicemen in order to counter the forces of Ubaydullah Khan during theBattle of Ghazdewan in 1512. In 1513, Selim I reconciled with Babur (fearing that he would join theSafavids), dispatchedUstad Ali Quli andMustafa Rumi, and many other Ottoman Turks, in order to assist Babur in his conquests; this particular assistance proved to be the basis of future Mughal-Ottoman relations.[68] From them, he also adopted the tactic of using matchlocks and cannons in field (rather than only insieges), which would give him an important advantage in India.[69]
Suleiman I (6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566) – withHafsa Hatun. Also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, became sultan after his father's death.[73][74][75]
Hafize Hafsa Sultan (ante 1494 – 10 July 1538) - daughter of Hafsa. She married twice and had a son.
Beyhan Sultan (ante 1494 – 1559) – daughter of Hafsa. Called also Peykhan Sultan. Married in 1513 to Ferhad Pasha. She had at least one daughter, Esmehan Hanımsultan.[78][79]
Şahzade Sultan (? –ante 1517), known also as Sultanzade Sultan, she marriedÇoban Mustafa Pasha son of Iskender Pasha. She had at least one daughter, Ayşe Hanımsultan, who was lived in 1556. After her death, her husband married her half-sister Hatice Sultan.[76]
Kamerşah Sultan (died on 27 September 1503 in Trabzon, buried in Gülbahar Hatun Mausoleum, Trabzon), called also Kamer Sultan;[73][74][75]
Yenişah Sultan (? – ?). She married Güzelce Mahmud Pasha.[76]
Hanım Sultan. Is uncertain of she was really existed or if Hanım is the second name of Hatice Sultan or Şahzade Sultan.[76]
Selim I left an enduring legacy in the wake of his death through his expansive conquests in the Middle East and Europe, greatly increasing the size of the Ottoman Empire by the end of his reign.[83]
Among in popular cultures within Selim I, he appears many in the shows or game. For example, to start with first one is a game calledAssassin's Creed: Revelations, an action-adventuring game where Selim I appears as an important character.[84] In shows, such asMagnificent Century, Selim I is also portrayed in the television series, played by Muharrem Gülmez.[85] InKingdoms of Fire, Selim I is portrayed as a major antagonist, played by Mahmoud Nasr.[86]
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^abcdFloor, Herzig, Floor, Willem M, Herzig, Edmund, and Iran Heritage Foundation. Iran and the World in the Safavid Age. International Library of Iranian Studies; 2. London; New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012. Chapter 13: Trade between the Ottomans and Safavids: The Acem Tϋccari and others. p. 238.
^Küçükdağ, Yusuf. "Measures Taken by the Ottoman State against Shah İsmail's Attempts to Convert Anatolia to Shia." University of Gaziantep Journal of Social Sciences7, no. 1 (2008). p. 11.
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