SSRIs are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries.[2] In adults, they are recommended as afirst-line treatment for moderate to severe depression, while for mild depression non-drug treatments are preferred unless the patient chooses medication.[3] SSRIs have modest benefits overplacebo, with uncertainclinical significance,[4] and may produce a substantial drug-specific response in only a minority of patients.[5] There is no consistent evidence linking depression to low serotonin levels, and long-term use may reduce serotonin concentrations.[6] Fifty years after their introduction, SSRIs remain widely used for depression, though their effectiveness, mechanisms, and role in medicalizing normal life remain debated.[7]
Their effectiveness, especially for mild to moderate depression, remains debated due to mixed research findings and concerns aboutbias,placebo effects, andadverse outcomes. SSRIs can cause a range of side effects, including movement disorders likeakathisia and various forms of sexual dysfunction—such asanorgasmia,erectile dysfunction, andreduced libido—with some effects potentially persisting long after discontinuation (post-SSRI sexual dysfunction). SSRIs posedrug interaction risks by potentially causingserotonin syndrome, reducing efficacy withNSAIDs, and altering drug metabolism throughCYP450 enzyme inhibition. SSRIs are safer in overdose thantricyclics but can still cause severe toxicity in large or combined doses. Stopping SSRIs abruptly can cause withdrawal symptoms, so tapering, especially fromparoxetine, is recommended, withfluoxetine causing fewer issues.
In 2022, the UKNational Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommended that antidepressants be offered as a first-line treatment for moderate to severe depression, but for mild depression, non-drug interventions are preferred unless the patient chooses medication.[3] They recommended that antidepressants should not be routinely offered for mild depression and should generally be used only if non-drug treatments fail or the patient prefers medication.[3]
In a 2018 review, all 21 studied antidepressants were more effective than placebo for major depressive disorder.[9] SSRIs remain the most widely prescribed antidepressants, emerging options likeanti-inflammatory drugs andketamine may have higher efficacy and remission rates in treating depression.[10]
The commonly used definition of antidepressant "response" as a 50% symptom reduction dichotomizes continuous data, which methodologists note can inflate effect sizes, exaggerate drug–placebo differences, and may not reliably indicateclinical significance.[11][12] A large FDA trial analysis found that SSRIs and other antidepressants produced only modest average benefits over placebo, with about 15% of patients experiencing a substantial drug-specific response.[5] SSRIs and other antidepressants may have average treatment effects that fall below theminimal important difference on common depression outcome measures, leaving their clinical significance in acute moderate-to-severe depression uncertain.[4]
There is no consistent evidence that depression is caused by lowered serotonin activity or concentrations, with some data suggesting that long-term antidepressant use may reduce serotonin levels.[6]
The NICE Guideline recommends that SSRIs should not be used to treat depression in children and young people, except for fluoxetine, which may be considered for moderate to severe depression when psychological therapies alone are insufficient.[13] In the United States, they are approved for use in pediatric patients; however, individuals under 25 years of age should be closely monitored for an increased risk of suicidality, as indicated by the FDA black box warning.[14]
SSRIs have the best outcomes when combined withcognitive-behavioral therapy.[15] Their benefits are modest and tolerability varies.[16] The benefits may be clinically unimportant and there are uncertain effects on suicide risk.[17]
SSRIs show some evidence of effectiveness for social anxiety disorder, including reducing relapse and disability, but the overall quality of evidence is low to moderate and tolerability is slightly lower than placebo.[18]
Two SSRIs are FDA-approved for PTSD: paroxetine and sertraline.[19] The 2023 VA/DoD guideline for PTSD recommends the SSRIs sertraline and paroxetine as first-line pharmacological treatments when trauma-focused therapy is unavailable or not preferred; evidence for other SSRIs is insufficient, and medications are recommended to be tailored to each patient's individual needs.[19] A 2022 Cochrane review found that SSRIs improve PTSD symptoms in 58% of patients compared with 35% on placebo (RR 0.66) and are considered first-line treatment.[20]
SSRIs are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment ofgeneralized anxiety disorder (GAD) in adults who have not responded to initial interventions such as education, self-help strategies, or psychological therapies.[21]
SSRIs are more effective than placebo for treating GAD with similar overall acceptability, though they increase dropout due to adverse effects.[22]
In Canada, SSRIs are a first-line treatment of adultobsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD).[23] In the UK, they are first-line treatment only with moderate to severe functional impairment and as second-line treatment for those with mild impairment, though, as of early 2019, this recommendation is being reviewed.[24][25]
SSRIs are more effective than placebo for reducing OCD symptoms and global severity in children and adolescents, and combining them withexposure therapy is probably more effective than using an SSRI alone.[26]
SSRIs are approved to treat panic disorder.[27][28] SSRIs may be more effective than placebo in reducing panic disorder symptoms, but they are associated with a higher risk of adverse effects and may be less well tolerated.[29]
Antidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment ofbulimia nervosa.[30] SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other anti-depressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term trials. Long-term efficacy remains poorly characterized.
Similar recommendations apply tobinge eating disorder.[30] SSRIs provide short-term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.[31]
Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment ofanorexia nervosa.[32] Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence[30] recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but that they may be used for the treatment of co-existing depression, anxiety, or OCD.[31]
SSRIs have been used off-label in the treatment ofstroke patients, including those with and without symptoms of depression. A 2021 meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials found no evidence pointing to their routine use to promote recovery following stroke.[33]
SSRIs are effective for the treatment of premature ejaculation. Taking SSRIs on a chronic, daily basis is more effective than taking them prior to sexual activity.[34] The increased efficacy of treatment when taking SSRIs on a daily basis is consistent with clinical observations that the therapeutic effects of SSRIs generally take several weeks to emerge.[35]Sexual dysfunction ranging fromdecreased libido toanorgasmia is usually considered to be a significantly distressing side effect which may lead to noncompliance in patients receiving SSRIs.[36] However, for those with premature ejaculation, this very same side effectbecomes the desired effect.
SSRIs such as sertraline are effective in decreasinganger,[37] and fluoxetine has been proven effective in reduction of attack frequency and intensity forRaynaud syndrome.[38]
The mechanism by which SSRIs may cause sexual side effects is not well understood as of 2021[update]. The range of possible mechanisms includes (1) nonspecific neurological effects (e.g., sedation) that globally impair behavior including sexual function; (2) specific effects on brain systems mediating sexual function; (3) specific effects on peripheral tissues and organs, such as the penis, that mediate sexual function; and (4) direct or indirect effects on hormones mediating sexual function.[46] Management strategies include: for erectile dysfunction the addition of aPDE5 inhibitor such assildenafil; for decreased libido, possibly adding or switching tobupropion; and for overall sexual dysfunction, switching tonefazodone.[47]Buspirone is sometimes used off-label to reduce sexual dysfunction associated with the use of SSRIs.[48][49][50]
Several studies have suggested that SSRIs may adversely affect semen quality.[54][55]
Whiletrazodone (an antidepressant withalpha adrenergic receptor blockade) is a notorious cause ofpriapism, cases of priapism have also been reported with certain SSRIs (e.g., fluoxetine, citalopram).[56]
Post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD)[57][58] refers to a set of symptoms reported by some people who have taken SSRIs or otherserotonin reuptake-inhibiting (SRI) drugs, in which sexual dysfunction symptoms persist for at least three months[59][60][61] after ceasing to take the drug. The status of PSSD as a legitimate and distinct pathology is contentious; several researchers have proposed that it should be recognized as a separate phenomenon from more common SSRI side effects.[62]
The reported symptoms of PSSD include reducedsexual desire orarousal,erectile dysfunction in males or loss ofvaginal lubrication in females, persistentpremature ejaculation (even in patients without a previous history of the condition),[63] difficulty having anorgasm or loss of pleasurable sensation associated with orgasm, and a reduction or loss of sensitivity in the genitals or othererogenous zones. Additional non-sexual symptoms are also commonly described, includingemotional numbing,anhedonia,depersonalization orderealization, andcognitive impairment.[59][64] The duration of PSSD symptoms appears to vary among patients, with some cases resolving in months and others in years or decades; one analysis of patient reports submitted between 1992 and 2021 in theNetherlands listed a case which had reportedly persisted for 23 years.[60] The symptoms of PSSD are largely shared withpost-finasteride syndrome (PFS) andpost-retinoid sexual dysfunction (PRSD), two other poorly-understood conditions which have been suggested to share a common etiology with PSSD despite being associated with different types of medication.[65]
Diagnostic criteria for PSSD were proposed in 2022,[59] but as of 2023, there is no agreement on standards for diagnosis.[58] It is considered a distinct phenomenon fromantidepressant discontinuation syndrome,post-acute withdrawal syndrome, andmajor depressive disorder,[64][62] and should be distinguished from sexual dysfunction associated withdepression[64] andpersistent genital arousal disorder.[58] There are limited treatment options for PSSD as of 2023 and no evidence that any individual approach is effective.[58] The mechanism by which SSRIs may induce PSSD is unclear.[64][58] However, various neurochemical, hormonal, and biochemical changes during SSRI use—such as reduced dopamine levels, increased serotonin, inhibition of nitric oxide synthase, and the blocking of cholinergic and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors—could account for their sexual adverse effects.[66][67] Additionally, SSRIs may cause peripheral changes by inhibiting serotonin receptors in peripheral nerves,[68][69] which may also play a role in PSSD. As of 2023, prevalence is unknown.[58] A 2020 review stated that PSSD is rare, underreported, and "increasingly identified in online communities".[70] A 2024 study investigating the prevalence of persistent post-treatment genital numbness among sexual and gender minority youth found 13.2% of SSRI users between the ages 15 and 29 reporting the symptom compared to 0.9% who had used other medications.[71]
Reports of PSSD have occurred with almost every SSRI (dapoxetine is an exception).[58] In 2019, thePharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee of theEuropean Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended that packaging leaflets of selected SSRIs andSNRIs should be amended to include information regarding a possible risk of persistent sexual dysfunction.[72] Following the EMA assessment, a safety review byHealth Canada "could neither confirm nor rule out a causal link... which was long lasting in rare cases", but recommended that "healthcare professionals inform patients about the potential risk of long-lasting sexual dysfunction despite discontinuation of treatment".[73] A 2023 review stated that ongoing sexual dysfunction after SSRI discontinuation was possible, but that cause and effect were undetermined.[58] The 2023 review cautioned that reports of sexual dysfunction cannot be generalized to wider practice as they are subject to a "high risk of bias", but agreed with the EMA assessment that cautionary labeling on SSRIs was warranted.[58]
On May 20, 2024, a lawsuit was filed by the organizationPublic Citizen, representingDr. Antonei Csoka, against theUnited States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for failing to act on a citizen petition submitted in 2018.[74][75]The petition seeks to have the risk of serious sexual side effects persisting after discontinuation mentioned in the product labels of SSRIs and SNRIs. The lawsuit was dismissed by the United States District Court for the District of Columbia on March 25, 2025, due to the plaintiff lacking legal standing, as the court found no specific informational or physical injury. The FDA has not mandated comprehensive PSSD warnings across all SSRI and SNRI labels, though fluoxetine (Prozac) has included a warning about persistent sexual side effects since 2011.[76]Most other SSRI and SNRI labels address sexual dysfunction during use but not explicitly after discontinuation, and no broad public safety communications on PSSD have been issued by the FDA.
Certain antidepressants may causeemotional blunting, characterized by reduced intensity of both positive and negative emotions as well as symptoms ofapathy,indifference, andamotivation.[77][78] It may be experienced as either beneficial or detrimental depending on the situation.[79] Higher doses of antidepressants seem to be more likely to produce emotional blunting than lower doses.[78] It can be decreased by reducing dosage, discontinuing the medication, or switching to a different antidepressant that may have less propensity for causing this side effect.[78] Specifically, this side effect has been particularly associated with serotonergic antidepressants like SSRIs and SNRIs and may be less with atypical antidepressants likebupropion,agomelatine, andvortioxetine.[78][80][81]
Confounding the understanding of emotional blunting is the fact that the same symptom can be caused by depression itself, and may instead be a sign of incomplete resolution of depression. However, there is a very large amount of subjective evidence showing that it is increasingly reported after starting the use of antidepressants, suggesting that antidepressants do induce emotional blunting. There does appear to be a positive correlation between depression symptoms (measured by HAD-D) and degree of emotional blunting (measured by OQuESA), but more research is needed to clarify the amount of contribution by depression contributes to this symptom.[78] One possible explanation of this side effect of SSRIs and SNRIs is that they decrease the resting-state functional connectivity of the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex.[78]
As many as one-third of patients experiencing emotional blunting do not report it as a side effect to their physician.[82]
SSRIs do not appear to affect the risk ofcoronary heart disease (CHD) in those without a previous diagnosis of CHD.[85] A large cohort study suggested no substantial increase in the risk of cardiac malformations attributable to SSRI usage during the first trimester of pregnancy.[86] A number of large studies of people without known pre-existing heart disease have reported noEKG changes related to SSRI use.[87] The recommended maximum daily dose ofcitalopram andescitalopram was reduced due to concerns withQT prolongation.[88][89][90] In overdose, fluoxetine has been reported to causesinus tachycardia,myocardial infarction,junctional rhythms, andtrigeminy. Some authors have suggestedelectrocardiographic monitoring in patients with severe pre-existing cardiovascular disease who are taking SSRIs.[91]
In a 2023 study, a possible connection between SSRI usage and the onset ofmitral valve regurgitation was identified, indicating that SSRIs could hasten the progression of degenerative mitral valve regurgitation (DMR), especially in individuals carrying5-HTTLPR genotype. The study's authors suggest that genotyping should be performed on people with DMR to evaluate serotonin transporter (SERT) activity. They also urge practitioners to exercise caution when prescribing SSRIs to individuals with a familial history of DMR.[92][93][94]
SSRIs directly increase the risk of abnormal bleeding by lowering platelet serotonin levels, which are essential to platelet-driven hemostasis.[95]SSRIs interact withanticoagulants, likewarfarin, andantiplatelet drugs, likeaspirin.[96][97][98][99] This includes an increased risk ofGI bleeding, and post operative bleeding.[96] The relative risk ofintracranial bleeding is increased, but the absolute risk is very low.[100] SSRIs are known to cause platelet dysfunction.[101][102] This risk is greater in those who are also on anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents and NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), as well as with the co-existence of underlying diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver or liver failure.[98][103]
Evidence from longitudinal, cross-sectional, and prospective cohort studies suggests an association between SSRI usage at therapeutic doses and a decrease in bone mineral density, as well as increased fracture risk,[104][105][106][107] a relationship that appears to persist even with adjuvantbisphosphonate therapy.[108] However, because the relationship between SSRIs and fractures is based on observational data as opposed to prospective trials, the phenomenon is not definitively causal.[109] There also appears to be an increase in fracture-inducing falls with SSRI use, suggesting the need for increased attention to fall risk in elderly patients using the medication.[109] The loss of bone density does not appear to occur in younger patients taking SSRIs.[110]
SSRI andSNRI antidepressants may cause jaw pain/jaw spasm reversible syndrome (although it is not common). Buspirone appears to be successful in treatingbruxism on SSRI/SNRI induced jaw clenching.[111][112][113]
Serotonin syndrome is typically caused by the use of two or moreserotonergic drugs, including SSRIs.[114]Serotonin syndrome is a condition that can range from mild (most common) to deadly. Mild symptoms may consist ofincreased heart rate,fever, shivering,sweating,dilated pupils,myoclonus (intermittent jerking or twitching), as well ashyperreflexia.[115] Concomitant use of SSRIs or SNRIs for depression with atriptan formigraine does not appear to heighten the risk of the serotonin syndrome.[116] Takingmonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) in combination with SSRIs can be fatal, since MAOIs disruptmonoamine oxidase, an enzyme which is needed to break down serotonin and other neurotransmitters. Without monoamine oxidase, the body is unable to eliminate excess neurotransmitters, allowing them to build up to dangerous levels. The prognosis for recovery in a hospital setting is generally good if serotonin syndrome is correctly identified. Treatment consists of discontinuing any serotonergic drugs and providing supportive care to manageagitation andhyperthermia, usually withbenzodiazepines.[117]
Meta-analyses of short-duration randomized clinical trials have found that SSRI use is related to a higher risk of suicidal behavior in children and adolescents.[118][119][120] For instance, a 2004U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analysis ofclinical trials on children withmajor depressive disorder found statistically significant increases of the risks of "possiblesuicidal ideation and suicidal behavior" by about 80%, and of agitation and hostility by about 130%.[121] According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality is within the first one to two months of treatment.[122][123][124] The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the "early stages of treatment".[125] The European Psychiatric Association places the excess risk in the first two weeks of treatment and, based on a combination of epidemiological, prospective cohort, medical claims, and randomized clinical trial data, concludes that a protective effect dominates after this early period. A 2014 Cochrane review found that at six to nine months, suicidal ideation remained higher in children treated with antidepressants compared to those treated with psychological therapy.[124]
A 2007 comparison of aggression and hostility occurring during treatment with fluoxetine to placebo in children and adolescents found that no significant difference between the fluoxetine group and the placebo group.[128] There is also evidence that higher rates of SSRI prescriptions are associated with lower rates of suicide in children, though since the evidence iscorrelational, the true nature of the relationship is unclear.[129] A 2021 Swedish study, using a within-individual design, also found that young people (as well as adults) who have both attempted suicide and been prescribed SSRIs most commonly make the attempt before, rather than after, starting their SSRI prescription.[130]
It is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidal behavior in adults.
A 2005 meta-analysis of drug company data found no evidence that SSRIs increased the risk of suicide; however, important protective or hazardous effects could not be excluded.[131]
A 2005 review observed that suicide attempts are increased in those who use SSRIs as compared toplacebo and compared to therapeutic interventions other thantricyclic antidepressants. No difference risk of suicide attempts was detected between SSRIs versus tricyclic antidepressants.[132]
A 2006 review suggests that the widespread use of antidepressants in the new "SSRI-era" appears to have led to a highly significant decline in suicide rates in most countries with traditionally high baseline suicide rates. The decline is particularly striking for women who, compared with men, seek more help for depression. Recent clinical data on large samples in the US, too, have revealed a protective effect of antidepressants against suicide.[133]
A 2006 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials suggests that SSRIs increase suicide ideation compared with placebo. However, the observational studies suggest that SSRIs did not increasesuicide risk more than older antidepressants. The researchers stated that if SSRIs increase suicide risk in some patients, the number of additional deaths is very small because ecological studies have generally found that suicide mortality has declined (or at least not increased) as SSRI use has increased.[134]
An additional meta-analysis by the FDA in 2006 found an age-related effect of SSRIs. Among adults younger than 25 years, results indicated that there was a higher risk for suicidal behavior. For adults between 25 and 64, the effect appears neutral on suicidal behavior, but possibly protective for suicidal behavior for adults between the ages of 25 and 64. For adults older than 64, SSRIs seem to reduce the risk of suicidal behavior.[118]
In 2016, a review criticized the effects of theFDA Black Box suicide warning inclusion in the prescription. The authors discussed that the suicide rates might also increase as a consequence of the warning.[135] A 2019 review makes a similar claim, noting that instead of increasing the use of psychotherapy (as the FDA had hoped), the warning has increased the use ofbenzodiazepines.[136]
A 2021 study on Swedish youth and adults between 2006 and 2013 (n = 538,577) finds that the highest frequency of suicides occurs at 30 days before, rather than after, the beginning of SSRI prescription. This indicates that SSRIs do not increase the risk of suicide and may reduce the risk.[130]
SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflect a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases.[138] In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear.
SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold.[139][140] Use is also associated withpreterm birth.[141] According to some researches, decreased body weight of the child, intrauterine growth retardation, neonatal adaptive syndrome, and persistent pulmonary hypertension also was noted.[142]
A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies.[143][144] Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants.[145] Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI-exposed pregnancies.[140]
The FDA stated on July 19, 2006, that nursing mothers on SSRIs must discuss treatment with their physicians. However, the medical literature on the safety of SSRIs has determined that some SSRIs, like Sertraline and Paroxetine, are considered safe for breastfeeding.[146][147][148]
Several studies have documentedneonatal abstinence syndrome, a syndrome of neurological, gastrointestinal, autonomic, endocrine, and/or respiratory symptoms among a large minority of infants withintrauterine exposure. These syndromes are short-lived, but insufficient long-term data are available to determine whether there are long-term effects.[149][150]
Persistentpulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is a serious and life-threatening, but very rare, lung condition that occurs soon after the birth of the newborn.Newborn babies with PPHN have high pressure in their lungblood vessels and are not able to get enough oxygen into their bloodstream. About 1 to 2 babies per 1000 babies born in the U.S. develop PPHN shortly after birth, and often they need intensivemedical care. It is associated with about a 25% risk of significant long-term neurological deficits.[151] A 2014 meta analysis found no increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension associated with exposure to SSRI's in early pregnancy and a slight increase in risk associates with exposure late in pregnancy; "an estimated 286 to 351 women would need to be treated with an SSRI in late pregnancy to result in an average of one additional case of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn".[152] A review published in 2012 reached conclusions very similar to those of the 2014 study.[153]
According to a 2015 review available data found that "some signal exists suggesting thatantenatal exposure to SSRIs may increase the risk of ASDs (autism spectrum disorders)"[154] even though a large cohort study published in 2013[155] and a cohort study using data from Finland's national register between 1996 and 2010 and published in 2016 found no significant association between SSRI use and autism in offspring.[156] The 2016 Finland study also found no association withADHD, but did find an association with increased rates of depression diagnoses in early adolescence.[156]
In adults and children withbipolar disorder, SSRIs may cause a bipolar switch from depression intohypomania/mania, mixed states, orrapid cycling.[157] When taken withmood stabilizers, the risk of switching is not increased; however, when taking SSRIs as amonotherapy, the risk of switching may be twice or three times that of the average.[158][159] The changes are not often easy to detect and require monitoring by family and mental health professionals.[160] This switch might happen even with no prior (hypo)manic episodes and might therefore not be foreseen by the psychiatrist.
Painkillers of the NSAIDs drug family may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRIs and may compound the increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeds caused by SSRI use.[97][99][163] NSAIDs include:
There are several potential pharmacokinetic interactions between the various individual SSRIs and other medications. Most of these arise from the fact that every SSRI can inhibit certainP450 cytochromeenzymes.[164][165][166][167]
The CYP2D6 enzyme is entirely responsible for the metabolism ofhydrocodone,codeine[168] and dihydrocodeine to their active metabolites (hydromorphone,morphine, anddihydromorphine, respectively), which in turn undergo phase 2glucuronidation. These opioids (and to a lesser extentoxycodone,tramadol, andmethadone) have interaction potential with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.[169][170] The concomitant use of some SSRIs (paroxetine andfluoxetine) withcodeine may decrease the plasma concentration of active metabolite morphine, which may result in reduced analgesic efficacy.[171][172]
Another important interaction of certain SSRIs involves paroxetine, a potent inhibitor of CYP2D6, and tamoxifen, an agent commonly used in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is a prodrug that is metabolised by the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system, especially CYP2D6, to its active metabolites. Concomitant use of paroxetine and tamoxifen in women with breast cancer is associated with a higher risk of death, as much as a 91 percent increase in women who used it the longest.[173]
SSRIs appear safer inoverdose when compared with traditional antidepressants, such as the tricyclic antidepressants. This relative safety is supported by both case series and studies of deaths per number of prescriptions.[174] However, case reports of SSRI poisoning have indicated that severe toxicity can occur[175] and deaths have been reported following massive single ingestions,[176] although this is exceedingly uncommon when compared to the tricyclic antidepressants.[174]
Because of the widetherapeutic index of the SSRIs, most patients will have mild or no symptoms following moderate overdoses. The most commonly reported severe effect following SSRI overdose isserotonin syndrome; serotonin toxicity is usually associated with very high overdoses or multiple drug ingestion.[177] Other reported significant effects includecoma,seizures, andcardiac toxicity.[174]
Poisoning is also known in animals, and some toxicity information is available for veterinary treatment.[178]
Abrupt discontinuation of SSRIs, especially after prolonged therapy, causes a withdrawal syndrome, which may include symptoms such as nausea and vomiting, headache, dizziness, chills, body aches, paresthesias, insomnia, andbrain zaps.[179] Serotonin reuptake inhibitors should not be abruptly discontinued after extended therapy, and whenever possible, should be tapered over several weeks to minimize discontinuation-related symptoms. SSRI-associated withdrawal symptoms are not typically referred to as a dependence syndrome. However, commentators have noted that such symptoms meet the definition of a physical and psychological dependence syndrome.[180]
Paroxetine may produce discontinuation-related symptoms at a greater rate than other SSRIs, though qualitatively similar effects have been reported for all SSRIs.[181][182] Discontinuation effects appear to be less for fluoxetine, perhaps owing to its long half-life and the natural tapering effect associated with its slow clearance from the body. One strategy for minimizing SSRI discontinuation symptoms is to switch the patient to fluoxetine and then taper and discontinue the fluoxetine.[181]
In thecentral nervous system, the majority of released serotonin is taken up by SERT. When this process is blocked, it stays in the synaptic gap longer than it normally would, and may repeatedly stimulate the receptors of the postsynaptic cell. In the short run, this leads to an increase in signaling across synapses in which serotonin serves as the primary neurotransmitter. On chronic dosing, the increased occupancy of post-synaptic serotonin receptors signals the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize and release less serotonin. Serotonin levels within the synapse drop, then rise again, ultimately leading todownregulation of post-synaptic serotonin receptors.[185] Other, indirect effects may include increased norepinephrine output, increased neuronal cyclic AMP levels, and increased levels of regulatory factors such asBDNF andCREB.[186] Owing to the lack of a widely accepted comprehensive theory of the biology of mood disorders, there is no widely accepted theory of how these changes lead to the mood-elevating and anti-anxiety effects of SSRIs.
There has to be this consideration that also antidepressants should work as central nervous "stimulants" (with this terminus being a right description rudimentary, yet "stimulating" meant in another way as psychostimulants in not providing or sustaining focus or attention due to increased monoamine-availability in the synaptic cleft but an increased released serotonin for controlling ones longterm emotional conditioned state), in where due to their potent affinity[187] which is depicting how strong the tendency of a molecule is speaking about binding to their prefferable receptor-bindingsite (in antidepressants mostly speaking about the targeted serotonin- and noradrenalintransporters[188]) which is in general rule considered remarkabely higher than in statistics for their respective "high-making" relatives (like methylphenidate[189]), to occupy and inactivate receptortransporters such efficiantly to directly activate downstream-effects most prominently the downregulation of exacerbitable postsynaptic serotonin-5HT2A-and 1A receptors[190] as direct effect to this chances as a longterm regulation (then outcalled as therapeutic adwished effect due to its promised mood-elevating habituation).[191]
Values are Ki (nM). The smaller the value, the more strongly the drug binds to the site.
In addition to their actions as reuptake inhibitors of serotonin, some SSRIs are also, coincidentally,ligands of thesigma receptors.[192][193]Fluvoxamine is anagonist of theσ1 receptor, whilesertraline is anantagonist of the σ1 receptor, andparoxetine does not significantly interact with the σ1 receptor.[192][193] None of the SSRIs have significant affinity for theσ2 receptor.[192][193] Fluvoxamine has by far the strongest activity of the SSRIs at the σ1 receptor.[192][193] High occupancy of the σ1 receptor by clinical dosages of fluvoxamine has been observed in the human brain inpositron emission tomography (PET) research.[192][193] It is thought that agonism of the σ1 receptor by fluvoxamine may have beneficial effects oncognition.[192][193] In contrast to fluvoxamine, the relevance of the σ1 receptor in the actions of the other SSRIs is uncertain and questionable due to their very low affinity for the receptor relative to theSERT.[194]
The role of inflammation and the immune system in depression has been extensively studied. The evidence supporting this link has been shown in numerous studies over the past decade. Nationwide studies and meta-analyses of smaller cohort studies have uncovered a correlation between pre-existing inflammatory conditions such astype 1 diabetes,rheumatoid arthritis (RA), orhepatitis, and an increased risk of depression. Data also shows that using pro-inflammatory agents in the treatment of diseases likemelanoma can lead to depression. Several meta-analytical studies have found increased levels of proinflammatorycytokines andchemokines in depressed patients.[195] This link has led scientists to investigate the effects of antidepressants on the immune system.
SSRIs were originally invented to increase levels of available serotonin in the extracellular spaces. However, the delayed response between when patients first begin SSRI treatment to when they see effects has led scientists to believe that other molecules are involved in the efficacy of these drugs.[196] To investigate the apparent anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs, both Kohler et al. and Więdłocha et al. conducted meta-analyses which have shown that after antidepressant treatment the levels of cytokines associated with inflammation are decreased.[197][198] A large cohort study conducted by researchers in the Netherlands investigated the association between depressive disorders, symptoms, and antidepressants with inflammation. The study showed decreased levels ofinterleukin (IL)-6, a cytokine that has proinflammatory effects, in patients taking SSRIs compared to non-medicated patients.[199]
Treatment with SSRIs has shown reduced production of inflammatory cytokines such asIL-1β,tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, andinterferon (IFN)-γ, which leads to a decrease in inflammation levels and subsequently a decrease in the activation level of the immune response.[200] These inflammatory cytokines have been shown to activatemicroglia, which are specialized macrophages that reside in the brain.Macrophages are a subset of immune cells responsible for host defense in the innate immune system. Macrophages can release cytokines and other chemicals to cause an inflammatory response.Peripheral inflammation can induce an inflammatory response in microglia and can cause neuroinflammation. SSRIs inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production, which leads to less activation of microglia and peripheral macrophages. SSRIs not only inhibit the production of these proinflammatory cytokines, but they also have been shown to upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10. Taken together, this reduces the overall inflammatory immune response.[200][201]
In addition to affecting cytokine production, there is evidence that treatment with SSRIs has effects on the proliferation and viability of immune system cells involved in both innate and adaptive immunity. Evidence shows that SSRIs can inhibit proliferation inT-cells, which are important cells for adaptive immunity, and can induce inflammation. SSRIs can also induceapoptosis, programmed cell death, in T-cells. The full mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs is not fully known. However, there is evidence for various pathways to have a hand in the mechanism. One such possible mechanism is the increased levels ofcyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) as a result of interference with activation ofprotein kinase A (PKA), a cAMP-dependent protein. Other possible pathways include interference with calcium ion channels, or inducing cell death pathways likeMAPK[202] and Notch signaling pathway.[203]
The anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs have prompted studies of the efficacy of SSRIs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases such asmultiple sclerosis, RA,inflammatory bowel diseases, andseptic shock. These studies have been performed in animal models but have shown consistent immune regulatory effects.Fluoxetine, an SSRI, has also shown efficacy in animal models of graft vs. host disease.[202] SSRIs have also been used successfully as pain relievers in patients undergoing oncology treatment. The effectiveness of this has been hypothesized to be at least in part due to the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs.[201]
Large bodies of research are devoted to usinggenetic markers to predict whether patients will respond to SSRIs or have side effects that will cause their discontinuation, although these tests are not yet ready for widespread clinical use.[204]
There appears to be no significant difference in effectiveness between SSRIs andtricyclic antidepressants, which were the most commonly used class of antidepressants before the development of SSRIs.[205] However, SSRIs have the important advantage that theirtoxic dose is high, and, therefore, they are much more difficult to use as a means to commitsuicide. Further, they have fewer and milderside effects.[citation needed] Tricyclic antidepressants also have a higher risk of serious cardiovascular side effects, which SSRIs lack.
Although described asSNRIs,duloxetine (Cymbalta),venlafaxine (Effexor), anddesvenlafaxine (Pristiq) are in fact relatively selective asserotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs).[206] They are about at least 10-fold selective for inhibition of serotonin reuptake over norepinephrine reuptake.[206] The selectivity ratios are approximately 1:30 for venlafaxine, 1:10 for duloxetine, and 1:14 for desvenlafaxine.[206][207] At low doses, theseSNRIs act mostly as SSRIs; only at higher doses do they also prominently inhibit norepinephrine reuptake.[208][209]Milnacipran (Ixel, Savella) and itsstereoisomerlevomilnacipran (Fetzima) are the only widely marketedSNRIs that inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine to similar degrees, both with ratios close to 1:1.[206][210]
Zimelidine was introduced in 1982 and was the first SSRI to be sold. Despite its efficacy, a statistically significant increase in cases ofGuillain–Barré syndrome among treated patients led to its withdrawal in 1983.Fluoxetine, introduced in 1987, is commonly thought to be the first SSRI to be marketed.[medical citation needed]
Fifty years after the introduction of fluoxetine and other SSRIs, these drugs remain widely used and often effective for depression, though their effectiveness, mechanisms of action, prescription patterns, and role in the medicalization of normal life remain debated.[7]
Fluoxetine was investigated as a potentialenvironmental contaminant, but found to have 'limited accumulation' in comparison to other pharmaceutically active compounds.[216]
An SSRI (fluoxetine) has been approved for veterinary use in treatment ofcanine separation anxiety.[217] Like in human medicine, fluoxetine is extensively used off-label in animal medicine. In dogs and cats, it is mainly prescribed off-label for behavior problems.[218]
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