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Secular Shrine Theory orJinja hishūkyōron (神社非宗教論) was areligious policy and political theory that arose inJapan during the 19th and early 20th centuries due to theseparation of church and state of theMeiji Government.[1] It was the idea thatShinto Shrines were secular in their nature rather than religious,[2] and thatShinto was not a religion, but rather a secular set of Japanese national traditions. This was linked toState Shinto and the idea that the state controlling and enforcing Shinto was not a violation offreedom of religion. It was subject to immense debate over this time and ultimately declined and disappeared during theShōwa era.[3]
Translating the word "religion" into Japanese has been controversial from the beginning, with some scholars arguing it was a Christian concept that did not apply to Shinto.[2]
Kozaki Hiromichi first translated the English word "religion" asshūkyō (宗教)[a][4] Before that,Yukichi Fukuzawa translated it asshūmon (宗門)[b] andshūshi (宗旨),[c][5] andMasanao Nakamura translated it ashōkyō (法教)[d][6]
According to Genchi Kato:
There is no doubt that Christianity in Japan had the idea that Christianity is the true religion in the background when they proposed the Japanese translation of the religion. In Japan, however, Buddhism, a major world religion, existed before Christianity and had a considerable number of followers. There were many high priests and great scholars among the monks. No one, not even Christians, could ignore this fact, so when the translation of the word "religion" was disseminated, there must have been some thought that Christianity was the greatest of all religions, and that Buddhism could be added to it and included in the translation of the word "religion". In other words, the translation of the word "religion" was devised only for world religions and individual religions such as Buddhism and Christianity, and not for tribal religions, national religions, or group religions in religious studies.[7]
— Genchi Kato, A Reexamination of the Shrine Question: The True Meaning of Shinto and Education in Japan
In other words, Shinto was not included in the translation of "religion".[2]
In theTaishō era (1912–1926), the origin of the word "religion" was traced back toLatin, which came fromChristian studies.[8] The classical etymology of the word, traced toCicero himself, derives it fromrelegere: prefixre- ("again") +lego ("read"), wherelego is in the sense of "go over", "choose", or "consider carefully". Modern scholars such asTom Harpur andJoseph Campbell have argued thatreligio is derived fromreligare, asre- ("again") +ligare ("bind; connect"), which was made prominent byAugustine of Hippo, following the interpretation ofLactantius inDivinae institutiones, IV, 28.[9][10]
They have known me for a long time and can testify, if they are willing, that I conformed to the strictest sect of our religion, living as a Pharisee.
— Acts of the Apostles, 26:5
The wordshūkyō (宗教) comes from Buddhism, according to Buddhist scholarHajime Nakamura . In Buddhism, it means "the teaching of the sect", that is, the "teaching" of the "sect", which means the ultimate principle or truth, and religion existed as a subordinate concept of Buddhism .[11]
Christian theologians have traditionally held that the meaning and wording of the word religion has been continued in its original meaningfrom Latin[need quotation to verify], which is the way it is used today.[12][verification needed] TheChristian position in Japan has always been thatShinto is areligion since its introduction. In Japan, there was a deep-rooted sense of caution against foreignreligions, and problems arose accordingly.Christian missionary activity, which began at the beginning of the Meiji era, was also divided into different denominations, and problems arose as a result.[13]
It is believed that the Shinto side adopted the Secular Shrine Theory in part because they argued thatShinto is different fromBuddhism andChristianity, that is, it is unique to Japan.[7] On the contrary, from theBuddhist and Christian sides, the argument was that Shinto is a religion because it has an object of veneration.
Of course, during that time, the religious and non-religious nature of Shinto shrines was debated not as a legal issue but purely as a matter of religious studies. However, it never became a social or political issue that could move public opinion, because it was a debate within the realm of universities and academia, and never developed into a political movement.[14]
That said, there are modern objections to this, and P. Burger, in The Sacred Canopy.[15][16]
Since religion is a comprehensive phenomenon with diverse, complex, and multifaceted aspects, if we try to define religion by focusing on one aspect of its characteristics, other important aspects will be neglected. Therefore, if we take up one aspect of religion as a characteristic, other important aspects will be neglected. In this way, the way religion is perceived from a scientific standpoint is also divided into various views. Therefore, it should be said that there is still no single definition of religion that has been finally agreed upon by all researchers.[16]
— Peter L. Berger, Holy Canopy: Sociology of the Holy World
TheMeiji Constitution said that subjects will have freedom of religion as long as it does not inferfere with their duties as subjects,[17] this has been interpreted as making theImperial Cult separate.
On January 24, 1882, aHome Ministry notice stated that shrines were not religious (Secular Shrine Theory).[18] However, Shinto funeral rites underPrefectural shrines were allowed, and the priests of the great shrines were not considered clergy.[19]
It was argued that
Shinto shrines are an inherent belief of the Japanese people that has existed inseparably from the national identity since the beginning of Japan, and are the basis of the Constitution. It is only natural that there is nothing in the articles of the Constitution that provides for shrines, and the faith of the Japanese people in shrines should not be subject to the religious freedom provisions of the Constitution. The content of the Shinto rituals is a combination of Confucian moral and Buddhist religious thought and beliefs that are unique to the nation. This is not a complete shrine system.The shrine system should be established by embracing the full range of the current situation of shrines, and in short, it should have a form unique to the empire and unrivaled in all countries, apart from the boundaries of translation law.[20]
In the "On the Relationship between Religious Bills and Shrines", which appears to have been prepared by theHome Ministry Bureau of Shrines around 1930, it was stated that:
Shrines exist institutionally for the purpose of public rituals of the state. At the same time, individual citizens can obtain objects of worship through shrines, but this is not the original purpose of shrines in the system, but only a reflexive benefit that accompanies the system of shrines. Since the state, as a matter of principle, does not interfere with the faith of individual citizens (Article 28 of theImperial Japanese Constitution), it is not necessary to explain again that it is not the purpose of the state to run shrines institutionally that shrines become the object of faith for individual citizens. If we assume that the existence of Shinto spirits is recognized, and therefore shrines must be treated as a religion, then we can say that shrines are the religion of our country.However, since the state's own rituals of Shinto are unparalleled in all ages, it must be strictly distinguished from the so-called national religions of European countries. In short, regardless of the academic definition of religion, shrines are institutionally the rituals of our nation.[21]
Originally, theMeiji government was aiming for a politics of "Unity of ritual and government" due to the "Proclamation of the Great Doctrine", but due to the conflict between the "Buddhist side" and the "Shinto side" over theteaching profession, "the joint mission of God and Buddha was prohibited". It begins with the transfer of each religious administration to the Ministry of Interior. The following is a description of the situation that led to the "separation of religious and political affairs" from the "Shinto controversy". The separation of religious and political affairs is said to have been proposed by the Shinto side, and was led byMaruyama Sakura [ja] and others.
Following the dissolution of theGreat Teaching Institute, theBureau of Shinto Affairs was established, and in1881, the Shinto priests of the Ise sect,Yoritsune Tanaka [ja] and others, and the priest of the Izumo sect,Senge Takatomi, argued over the ritual deity[22] This led to an imperial request toEmperor Meiji.[23] TheJōdo Shinshū side did not stand idly by and watch this chaotic situation, and followingShimaji Mokurai [ja],Atsumi Kaien [ja],Akamatsu Renjo [ja] and other theoreticians went out one after another to advise the government to cooperate.[24] It was the successor toShimaji Mokurai [ja]'s theory that Shinto is not a religion, and the political powers that be were forced to confirm it, and to forbid all religious speech, teaching, and religious acts (such as funeral rites) by priests involved in state ceremonies. This would have completely blocked the way for "Shinto as a religious belief" to become the national religion.[24]
It is not clear who the primary proponents on the Shinto side were. Originally, the word "Shūkyō (宗教)" was a translation of theEnglish word "religion", and there is no clear definition of the concept. The Shinto side referred to Shinto as the "national religion" or "main religion", but there was no such theory that Shinto was a part of a religion. The non-religious theory of Maruyama Sakura and others is thought to have been based on their concern about the situation in which Shinto was becoming divided due to ritual god disputes, etc., which resembled "religious theological disputes" in the new terminology of the time, and the fact that Shinto could not maintain its national status without stopping such divisions.[25]
According to Yoshio Keino ofKeio University, the government did not originally present the theory of non-religious shrines, but it was actively promoted by the Buddhist side. This is because the situation at the time was that the definition of religion was "proselytizing and conducting funerals.[26]
Among them,Yamada Akiyoshi, the Minister of the Interior, adopted the theory of non-religious shrines presented by the Shinto side, including Maruyama Sakura.[27]
Later,Senge Takatomi left theBureau of Shinto Affairs in order to proselytize and founded theIzumo Taisha-kyo.[28]
After theSatsuma Rebellion, theSatsuma Domain and otherShizoku began to focus on the management ofShinto shrines dedicated to theirUjigami. And with that, thePriests emerged as theFreedom and People's Rights Movement.[29]
In June1887, Shinto priests in Kyushu organized the Saikai Rengo-kai, which appealed to Shintoists throughout the country, arousing strong sympathy and emerging as a nationwide organized movement of Shinto priests .[30] On November 17, 1887, representatives from each prefecture met at the Imperial Classic Research Institute, and each committee member formed an association of priests, and the movement to revive the Shinto priests was launched nationwide.[31]
Also, in March 1890, rumors circulated in Shinto circles thatShinto was also included as areligion in order to restore it to its original state.[32]
In order to restore Shinto to its original state, at least the state structure must be changed, theShinto priest must be restored, and the spirit and system of "Shinto is the ritual of the state" must be restored from this base.
— Uzuhiko Ashizu [ja], [33]
And behind the nationwide movement in the 1890s to revive the Shinto priesthood was a sense of "crisis" among Shinto priests and those involved in the Shinto religion against a government that was promoting a skeletonization of the "state's suzerainty" of Shinto shrines. When rumors of the religious ordinances began to circulate, a full-scale movement was launched to restore the Shinto priesthood by returning the teaching positions of the so-called "Minsha (民社) priests" below the rank of prefectures and shrines.[34]
This movement was somewhat successful, and on April 26, 1899, the Shrine Division, which was only a division of theBureau of Shrines and Temples of the Ministry of Home Affairs, was upgraded to theBureau of Shrines.[35] TheBureau of Religions also being split off to deal with other religions such asSect Shinto.[36]
On June 13, 1913, theBureau of Religions which was run under theHome Ministry, which had jurisdiction over religions other than Shinto shrines, was transferred to theMinistry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.[37]
The debate was whetherShinto shrines are "non-religious" or "religious". In particular, if shrines were religious, theMinistry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture has jurisdiction over it, and if they were secular theHome Ministry would have had jurisdiction over them.[38] Some have also arisen as a result of policies taken by thegovernment to bringreligious organizations under the rule of law.[39]
Meiji Shrine priest and generalIchinohe Hyoe advocated categorizing Shinto as a religion[40]
The world is advancing at a rapid pace. Academic research is gradually expanding its horizons. Since the nineteenth century, civilizations in both the East and the West have made rapid progress. The study of religion has come to the point where it is no longer possible to accept the position that Shinto faith, shrine Shinto, is not a religion. .... So nowadays, even among the priests of shrines, there is no one who does not admit that shrines and Shinto shrines are religions if they look deep into their hearts.[40]
As the wartime atmosphere became more intense through theFebruary 26 Incident,May 15 Incident, etc., discussions on secular shrine theory were silenced.[41]
After discussion and deliberation by the Religious System Research Committee established by theMinistry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, a report was submitted to the legislature on the enactment of theReligious Organizations Law, with the aim of bringing religious organizations under the legal system and having them observe the rules that they have voluntarily established. However, it was repeatedly rejected by the majority.[3] However, through persistent persuasion, with the passage of theReligious Organizations Law by Law No. 77 of April 8, 1939,[42][43] thelegislature legally abandoned the 'Secular Shrine Theory'. BecauseSect Shinto was now required by law to be designated and approved.[3]
On November 9, 1940, theMinistry of the Interior reorganized itsBureau of Religions and established theInstitute of Divinities, which was able to maintain "Secular Shrine Theory as the national religion".[44] Also, in thePenal Code of the time, thePeace Preservation Law[45][46] andLèse-majesté to theEmperor of Japan andJingu, especially theSpecial Higher Police[47] suppression of otherreligions existed.[48]
With this shift secular shrine theory came to be replaced by a more authoritarian form ofState Shinto.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link){{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)葦津珍彦 (2006-11-01).新版 国家神道とは何だったのか (in Japanese). 神社新報社.ISBN 9784915265105.
The following materials have been quoted, processed, and verified. Other materials have been quoted, processed, and verified from the "books, articles, and websites" listed in the Sources section (in accordance with Article 32 of theJapanCopyright Law).
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