 Beagle at Ponsonby Sound in theBeagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego, in March 1834; painting by the ship's draughtsmanConrad Martens. | |
| Leader | Robert FitzRoy |
|---|---|
| Start | 27 December 1831 (1831-12-27) |
| End | 2 October 1836 (1836-10-02) |
| Goal | Survey South American coast |
| Ships | HMSBeagle |
| Achievements | Research leading to Darwin's theory of evolution |
| Route | |
 | |
Thesecond voyage of HMSBeagle, from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836, was the second survey expedition ofHMSBeagle, made under her newest commander,Robert FitzRoy. FitzRoy had thought of the advantages of having someone onboard who could investigategeology, and sought anaturalist to accompany them as asupernumerary. At the age of 22, the graduateCharles Darwin hoped to see the tropics before becoming aparson, and accepted the opportunity. He was greatly influenced by readingCharles Lyell'sPrinciples of Geology during the voyage. By the end of the expedition, Darwin had made his name as a geologist, andfossil collector, and the publication of his journal (later known asThe Voyage of theBeagle) gave him wide renown as a writer.
Beagle sailed across the Atlantic Ocean, and then carried out detailedhydrographic surveys around the coasts of southern South America, returning viaTahiti and Australia, after havingcircumnavigated the Earth. The initial offer to Darwin told him the voyage would last two years; it lasted almost five.
Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months land, 18 months at sea.[1] Early in the voyage, Darwin decided that he could write a geology book, and he showed a gift for theorising. AtPunta Alta in Argentina, he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from very few specimens. He collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals. His findings undermined his belief in the doctrine thatspecies are fixed, and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, leading to his theory ofevolution bynatural selection.
When theNapoleonic Wars ended in 1815, thePax Britannica saw seafaring nations competing in colonisation and rapid industrialisation. The logistics of supply and growing commerce needed reliable information about sea routes, but existingnautical charts were incomplete and inaccurate.Spanish American wars of independence ended Spain's monopoly over trade,[2][3] and the UK's 1825commercial treaty with Argentina recognised its independence, increasing the naval and commercial significance of the east coast ofSouth America.[4] TheAdmiralty instructedCommander King to make an accuratehydrographic survey of "the Southern Coasts of the Peninsula of South America, from the southern entrance of the River Plata, round to Chilóe; and of Tierra del Fuego".[5][6] As Darwin wrote of his voyage, "The object of the expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, commenced under Captain King in 1826 to 1830—to survey the shores of Chile, Peru, and of some islands in the Pacific—and to carry a chain of chronometrical measurements round the World."[7][6] The expeditions also had diplomatic objectives, visiting disputed territories.[2]
An Admiralty memorandum set out the detailed instructions. The first requirement was to resolve disagreements in the earlier surveys about thelongitude ofRio de Janeiro, which was essential as the base point formeridian distances. The accuratemarine chronometers needed todetermine longitude, had only become affordable since 1800;Beagle carried22 chronometers to allow corrections. The ship was to stop at specified points for a four-day rating of the chronometers and to check them byastronomical observations: it was essential to take observations atPorto Praya andFernando de Noronha to calibrate against the previous surveys ofWilliam Fitzwilliam Owen andHenry Foster. It was important to survey the extent of theAbrolhos Archipelago reefs, shown incorrectly inAlbin Roussin's survey, then proceed to Rio de Janeiro to decide the exact longitude ofVillegagnon Island off the Brazilian coast.[8]
The real work of the survey was then to commence south of theRío de la Plata, with return trips toMontevideo for supplies; details were given of priorities, including surveyingTierra del Fuego and approaches to harbours on theFalkland Islands. The west coast was then to be surveyed as far north as time and resources permitted. The commander would then determine his own route west: season permitting, he could survey theGalápagos Islands. Then,Beagle was to proceed toPoint Venus, Tahiti, and on toPort Jackson, Australia, which were known points to verify the chronometers.[9]
No time was to be wasted on elaborate drawings; charts and plans should have notes and simple views of the land as seen from the sea showing measured heights of hills. Continued records of tides andmeteorological conditions were also required. An additional suggestion was for a geological survey of a circular coralatoll in thePacific Ocean including its profile and of tidal flows, to investigate theformation of such coral reefs.[10]
The previous survey expedition to South America involvedHMSAdventure and HMSBeagle under the overall command of the Australian CommanderPhillip Parker King. During the survey,Beagle's captain,Pringle Stokes, committed suicide and command of the ship was given to the young aristocratRobert FitzRoy, a nephew ofGeorge FitzRoy, 4th Duke of Grafton. When a ship's boat was taken bythe natives of Tierra del Fuego, FitzRoy tried taking some of them hostage, and after this failed he got occupants of a canoe to put another on the ship inexchange for buttons. He brought four of them back to England to be given a Christian education, with the idea that they could eventually become missionaries. One died ofsmallpox.[11][12] AfterBeagle's return toDevonport dockyard on 14 October 1830, Captain King retired.[13]
The 27-year-old FitzRoy had hopes of commanding a second expedition to continue the South American survey, but when he heard that theLords of the Admiralty no longer supported this, he grew concerned about how to return the Fuegians. He made an agreement with the owner of a small merchant-vessel to take himself and five others back to South America, but a kind uncle heard of this and contacted the Admiralty. Soon afterwards, FitzRoy heard that he was to be appointed commander ofHMSChanticleer to go to Tierra del Fuego, but due to her poor condition,Beagle was substituted. On 27 June 1831, FitzRoy was commissioned as commander of the voyage, and LieutenantsJohn Clements Wickham andBartholomew James Sulivan were both appointed.[14]
CaptainFrancis Beaufort, the Hydrographer of the Admiralty, was invited to decide on the use that could be made of the voyage to continue the survey, and he discussed with FitzRoy plans for a voyage of several years, including a continuation of the trip around the world to establish median distances.Beagle wascommissioned on 4 July 1831, under the command of Captain FitzRoy, who promptly spared no expense in havingBeagle extensively refitted.Beagle was immediately taken into dock for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, by 8 inches (200 mm) aft and 12 inches (300 mm) forward.[15] TheCherokee-class brig-sloops had the reputation of being "coffin brigs", which handled badly and were prone to sinking.[16] By helping the decks to drain more quickly with less water collecting in thegunnels, the raised deck gaveBeagle better handling and made her less liable to become top-heavy and capsize. Additional sheathing to the hull added about seven tons to herburthen and perhaps fifteen to her displacement.[15]
The ship was one of the first to test thelightning conductor invented byWilliam Snow Harris. FitzRoy obtained five examples of theSympiesometer, a kind ofmercury-freebarometer patented byAlexander Adie and favoured by FitzRoy as giving the accurate readings required by the Admiralty.[15]
In addition to its officers and crew,Beagle carried severalsupernumeraries, passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin, as well as engaging the artist/draughtsmanAugustus Earle to go in a private capacity.[15] The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to Tierra del Fuego onBeagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.[14][17]
ForBeaufort and the leadingCambridge "gentlemen of science", the opportunity for anaturalist to join the expedition fitted with their drive to revitalise British government policy on science. This elite disdained research done for money and felt thatnatural philosophy was for gentlemen, nottradesmen. The officer class of the Army and Navy provided a way to ascend this hierarchy; theship's surgeon often collected specimens on voyages, andRobert McCormick had secured the position onBeagle after taking part in earlier expeditions and studying natural history. A sizeable collection had considerable social value, attracting wide public interest, and McCormick aspired to fame as an exploring naturalist.[18] Collections made by the ship's surgeon and other officers were government property, though the Admiralty was not consistent on this,[19] and went to important London establishments, usually theBritish Museum.[20] The Admiralty instructions for the first voyage had required officers "to use their best diligence in increasing the Collections in each ship: the whole of which must be understood to belong to the Public", but on the second voyage this requirement was omitted, and the officers were free to keep all the specimens for themselves.[19][21]
FitzRoy's journal written during the first voyage noted that, while investigating magnetic rocks near theBárbara Channel, he regretted "that no person in the vessel was skilled inmineralogy, or at all acquainted withgeology", to make use of the opportunity of "ascertaining the nature of the rocks and earths" of the areas surveyed. FitzRoy decided that on any similar future expedition, he would "endeavour to carry out a person qualified to examine the land; while the officers, and myself, would attend tohydrography."[22] This indicated a need for a naturalist qualified to examine geology, who would spend considerable periods onshore away from the ship. McCormick lacked expertise in geology and had to attend to his duties on the ship.[23]
FitzRoy knew that commanding a ship could involve stress and loneliness. He was aware of his uncleViscount Castlereagh's suicide due to stress from overwork, as well as Captain Stokes's suicide.[24] This was to be the first time that FitzRoy would be fully in charge of a ship with no commanding officer or second captain to consult. It has been suggested that he felt the need for a gentleman companion who shared his scientific interests and could dine with him as an equal,[25] although there is no direct evidence to support this. ProfessorJohn Stevens Henslow described the position "more as a companion than a mere collector", but this was an assurance that FitzRoy would treat his guest as a gentleman naturalist. Several other ships at this period carried unpaid civilians as naturalists.[26]
Early in August, FitzRoy discussed this position with Beaufort, who had a scientific network of friends at theUniversity of Cambridge.[27] At Beaufort's request, mathematics lecturerGeorge Peacock wrote from London to Henslow about this "rare opportunity for a naturalist", saying that an "offer has been made to me to recommend a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", and suggesting the ReverendLeonard Jenyns.[28][29] Though Jenyns nearly accepted and even packed his clothes, he had concerns about his obligations as vicar ofSwaffham Bulbeck and about his health, therefore Jenyns declined the offer. Henslow briefly thought of going, but his wife "looked so miserable" that he quickly dropped the idea.[30] Both recommended bringing the 22-year-oldCharles Darwin, who was on a geology field trip withAdam Sedgwick. He had just completed the ordinaryBachelor of Arts degree which was a prerequisite for his intended career as aparson.[27]
Darwin fitted well the expectations of a gentleman natural philosopher and was well trained as a naturalist.[31] When he had studied geology in his second year at Edinburgh, he had found it dull, but from Easter to August 1831, he learned a great deal with Sedgwick and developed a strong interest during their geological field trip.[32] On 24 August Henslow wrote to Darwin:
...that I consider you to be the best qualified person I know of who is likely to undertake such a situation—I state this not on the supposition of yr. being a finished Naturalist, but as amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History. Peacock has the appointment at his disposal & if he can not find a man willing to take the office, the opportunity will probably be lost—Capt. F. wants a man (I understand) more as a companion than a mere collector & would not take any one however good a Naturalist who was not recommended to him likewise as agentleman. ... The Voyage is to last 2yrs. & if you take plenty of Books with you, any thing you please may be done ... there never was a finer chance for a man of zeal & spirit... Don't put on any modest doubts or fears about your disqualifications for I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of.[33]
The letter went first toGeorge Peacock, who quickly forwarded it to Darwin with further details, confirming that the "ship sails about the end of September". Peacock had discussed the offer withBeaufort, "he entirely approves of it & you may consider the situation as at your absolute disposal".[34] When Darwin returned home from the field trip late on 29 August and opened the letters,[35] his father objected strongly to the voyage so, the next day, he wrote declining the offer[36] and left to go shooting at the estate of his uncleJosiah Wedgwood II. With Wedgwood's help, Darwin's father was persuaded to relent and fund his son's expedition, and on Thursday 1 September, Darwin wrote to Beaufort accepting the offer.[37] That day, Beaufort wrote to tell FitzRoy that his friend Peacock had "succeeded in getting a 'Savant' for you—A Mr Darwin grandson of the well known philosopher and poet—full of zeal and enterprize and having contemplated a voyage on his own account to S. America".[38] On Friday Darwin left for Cambridge, where he, the next day, got advice on preparations of the voyage and references to experts by Henslow.[30]
Alexander Charles Wood (an undergraduate whose tutor was Peacock) wrote from Cambridge to his cousin FitzRoy to recommend Darwin.[39] Around midday on Sunday 4 September, Wood received FitzRoy's response, "straightforward and gentlemanlike" but strongly against Darwin joining the expedition; both Darwin and Henslow then "gave up the scheme". Darwin went to London anyway, and next morning met FitzRoy, who explained that he had promised the place to his friend Mr. Chester (possibly the novelistHarry Chester), but Chester had turned it down in a letter received not five minutes before Darwin arrived. FitzRoy emphasised the difficulties, including cramped conditions and plain food.[40][41] Darwin would be on the Admiralty's books to get provisions (worth £40 a year) and, like the ship's officers and captain, would pay £30 a year towards themess bill.[42] Including outfitting, the cost to him was unlikely to reach £500.[40] The ship would sail on 10 October, and would probably be away for three years. They talked and dined together, and soon found each other agreeable.[41] TheTory FitzRoy had been cautious at the prospect of companionship with this unknown young gentleman ofWhig background, and later admitted that his letter to Wood was "to throw cold water on the scheme" in "a sudden horror of the chances of having somebody he should not like on board". He half-seriously told Darwin later that, as "an ardent disciple ofLavater", he had nearly rejected Darwin on thephrenological basis that the shape (orphysiognomy) of Darwin's nose indicated a lack of determination.[43][44]
While he continued to get acquainted with FitzRoy, going shopping together, Darwin rushed around to arrange his supplies and equipment.[45] He took advice from experts on specimen preservation includingWilliam Yarrell at theZoological Society of London,Robert Brown at the British Museum, CaptainPhillip Parker King who led the first expedition, and invertebrate anatomistRobert Edmond Grant who had tutored Darwin at Edinburgh.[46] Yarrell gave invaluable advice and bargained with shopkeepers, so Darwin paid £50 for two pistols and a rifle, while FitzRoy had spent £400 on firearms.[44] On Sunday, 11 September, FitzRoy and Darwin took thesteam packet for Portsmouth.[47] Darwin was not seasick and had a pleasant "sail of three days". For the first time, he saw the "very small" cramped ship, met the officers,[48] and was glad to get a large cabin, shared with the assistant surveyorJohn Lort Stokes. On Friday, Darwin rushed back to London, "250 miles in 24 hours",[49] and on via Cambridge and St. Albans, travelling on the Wonder coach all day on 22 September to arrive in Shrewsbury that evening, then after a last brief visit to family and friends left for London on 2 October.[47][50] Delays toBeagle gave Darwin an extra week to consult experts and complete packing his baggage.[51] After sending his heavy goods down by steam packet, he took the coach along withAugustus Earle and arrived atDevonport on 24 October.[52]
The geologistCharles Lyell asked FitzRoy to record observations on geological features such as erratic boulders. Before they left England, FitzRoy gave Darwin a copy of the first volume of Lyell'sPrinciples of Geology which explained features as the outcome of a gradual process taking place over extremely long periods of time.[53] In his autobiography, Darwin recalled Henslow giving advice at this time to obtain and study the book, "but on no account to accept the views therein advocated".[54]
Darwin's position as a naturalist on board was as a self-funded guest with no official appointment, and he could leave the voyage at any suitable stage. At the outset,George Peacock had advised that "The Admiralty are not disposed to give a salary, though they will furnish you with an official appointment & every accomodation [sic]: if a salary should be required however I am inclined to think that it would be granted". Far from wanting this,[34][55] Darwin's concern was to maintain control over his collection. He was even reluctant to be on the Admiralty's books forvictuals until he got assurances from FitzRoy and Beaufort that this would not affect his rights to assign his specimens.[19][42]
Beaufort initially thought specimens ought to go to the British Museum, but Darwin had heard of many left waiting to be described, including botanical specimens from the firstBeagle voyage. Beaufort assured him that he "should have no difficulty" as long as he "presented them to some public body" such as theZoological orGeological societies. Henslow had set up the smallCambridge Philosophical Society museum, Darwin told him that new finds should go to the "largest & most central collection" rather than a "Country collection, let it be ever so good",[45][56] but soon expressed "hope to be able to assist the Philosoph. Society" with some specimens.[57]
FitzRoy arranged transport of specimens to England as official cargo on theAdmiraltyPacket Service, at no cost to Darwin even though it was his private collection.[58][59] Henslow agreed to store them at Cambridge, and Darwin confirmed with him arrangements for land carriage from the port,[60] to be funded by Darwin's father.[57]
The captain had to record his survey in painstaking paperwork, and Darwin too kept a daily log as well as detailed notebooks of his finds and speculations, and a diary which became his journal. Darwin's notebooks show complete professionalism that he had probably learnt at theUniversity of Edinburgh when making natural history notes while exploring the shores of theFirth of Forth with his brother Erasmus in 1826 and studying marine invertebrates withRobert Edmund Grant for a few months in 1827.[61] Darwin had also collectedbeetles at Cambridge, but he was a novice in all other areas of natural history. During the voyage, Darwin investigated small invertebrates while collecting specimens of other creatures for experts to examine and describe onceBeagle had returned to England.[32] More than half of his carefully organised zoology notes deal with marine invertebrates. The notes also record closely reasoned interpretations of what he found about their complex internal anatomy while dissecting specimens under his microscope and small experiments on their response to stimulation. His onshore observations included intense, analytical comments on possible reasons for the behaviour, distribution, and relation to their environment of the creatures he saw. He made good use of the ship's excellent library of books on natural history but continually questioned their correctness.[62]
Geology was Darwin's "principal pursuit" on the expedition, and his notes on that subject were almost four times larger than his zoology notes, although he kept extensive records on both. During the voyage, he wrote to his sister that "there is nothing like geology; the pleasure of the first days partridge shooting or first days hunting cannot be compared to finding a fine group of fossil bones, which tell their story of former times with almost a living tongue". To him, investigating geology brought reasoning into play and gave him opportunities for theorising.[61]
Charles Darwin had been told thatBeagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831,[34] but fitting out took longer. The Admiralty Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November, she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart. Repeated westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December,Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, underMount Edgecumbe on the west side ofPlymouth Sound and set out on its surveying expedition.[63]
Beagle touched atMadeira for a confirmed position without stopping. Then on 6 January, it reachedTenerife in theCanary Islands but wasquarantined there because ofcholera in England. Although tantalisingly near to the town ofSanta Cruz, to Darwin's intense disappointment, they were denied landing. With improving weather conditions, they sailed on. On 10 January, Darwin tried out aplankton net he had devised to be towed behind the ship—only the second recorded use of such a net (after use byJohn Vaughan Thompson in 1816). Next day, he noted the great number of animals collected far from land and wrote: "Many of these creatures so low in the scale of nature are most exquisite in their forms & rich colours. — It creates a feeling of wonder that so much beauty should be apparently created for such little purpose."[64]
Six days later, they made their first landing atPraia on the volcanic island ofSantiago in theCape Verde Islands. It is here that Darwin's description in his publishedJournal begins.[65] His initial impression was of a desolate and sterile volcanic island. However, upon visiting the town, he came to a deep valley where he "first saw the glory of tropical vegetation" and had "a glorious day", finding overwhelming novelty in the sights and sounds. FitzRoy set up tents and an observatory onQuail Island to determine the exact position of the islands, while Darwin collected numerous sea animals, delighting in vivid tropical corals in tidal pools, and investigating the geology of Quail Island.[66][67] ThoughDaubeny's book inBeagle's library described the volcanic geology of the Canary Islands, it said that the structure of the Cape Verde Islands was "too imperfectly known". Darwin saw Quail Island as his key to understanding the structure of St. Jago and made careful studies of itsstratigraphy in the way he had learnt from Adam Sedgwick. He collected specimens and described a white layer of hard white rock formed from crushed coral and seashells lying between layers of black volcanic rocks, and noted a similar white layer running horizontally in the black cliffs of St. Jago at 40 feet (12 m) above sea level. The seashells were, as far as he could tell, "the same as those of present day". He speculated that in geologically recent times a lava flow had covered this shell sand on the sea bed, and then the strata had slowly risen to their present level. Charles Lyell'sPrinciples of Geology presented a thesis of gradual rising and falling of the Earth's crust illustrated by the changing levels of theTemple of Serapis. Darwin implicitly supported Lyell by remarking that "Dr. Daubeny when mentioning the present state of the temple of Serapis. doubts the possibility of a surface of country being raised without cracking buildings on it. – I feel sure at St Jago in some places a town might have been raised without injuring a house."[68] Later, in his first letter to Henslow, he wrote that "The geology was preeminently interesting & I believe quite new: there are some facts on a large scale of upraised coast ... that would interest Mr. Lyell."[69] While still on the island, Darwin was inspired to think of writing a book on geology,[70] and later wrote of "seeing a thing never seen by Lyell, one yet saw it partially through his eyes".[71]
Beagle's surgeonRobert McCormick sought fame and fortune as an explorer.[72] When they first met at the start of the voyage, Darwin had commented that "My friend [McCormick] is an ass, but we jog on very amicably".[57] They walked into the countryside of St. Jago together,[73] and Darwin, influenced by Lyell, found the surgeon's approach old-fashioned.[74] They found a remarkablebaobab tree, which FitzRoy measured and sketched. Darwin went on subsequent "riding expeditions" withBenjamin Bynoe and Rowlett to visitRibeira Grande andSt Domingo. FitzRoy extended their stay to 23 days to complete his measurements ofmagnetism.[75] Darwin subsequently wrote to Henslow that his collecting included "several specimens of an Octopus, which possessed a most marvellous power of changing its colours; equalling any chamaelion, & evidently accommodating the changes to the colour of the ground which it passed over.—yellowish green, dark brown & red were the prevailing colours: this fact appears to be new, as far as I can find out."[69] Henslow replied that "The fact is not new, but any fresh observations will be highly important."[76]
McCormick increasingly resented the favours FitzRoy gave to assist Darwin with collecting. On 16 February, FitzRoy landed a small party including himself and Darwin onSt. Paul's Rocks, finding the seabirds so tame that they could be killed easily, while an exasperated McCormick was left circling the islets in a second small boat.[77] That evening, novices were greeted by a pseudo-Neptune, and in the morning, they crossed theequator with the traditionalline-crossing ceremony.[78]
Darwin had a special position as a guest and social equal of the captain, so junior officers called him "sir" until the captain dubbed DarwinPhilos for "ship's philosopher", which became his suitably respectful nickname.[79]
In South America,Beagle carried out its survey work going to and fro along the coasts to allow careful measurement and rechecking.Darwin made long journeys inland with travelling companions from the locality. He spent much of the time away from the ship, returning by prearrangement whenBeagle returned to ports where mail and newspapers were received, and Darwin's notes, journals, and collections sent back to England, via theAdmiralty Packet Service. He had ensured that his collections were his own and, as prearranged, batches of his specimens were shipped to England, then taken by land carriage to Henslow inCambridge to await his return.[58][80] The first batch was sent in August 1832, journey time varied considerably but all batches were eventually delivered.[81]
Several others on board, including FitzRoy and other officers, were able amateur naturalists, and they gave Darwin generous assistance as well as making collections for the Crown, which the Admiralty placed in the British Museum.[82]
Due to heavy surf, they only stayed atFernando de Noronha for a day to make the required observations, then FitzRoy pressed on toBahia de Todos Santos, Brazil, to rate the chronometers and take on water. They reached the continent and arrived at the port on 28 February.[8][83] Darwin was thrilled at the magnificent sight of "the town ofBahia or St Salvador", with large ships at harbour scattered across the bay. On the next day, he was in "transports of pleasure" walking by himself inthe tropical forest, and in "long naturalizing walks" with others continued to "add raptures to the former raptures".[84]
He found the sights of slavery offensive, and when FitzRoy defended the practice by describing a visit to a slaveowner whose slaves replied "no" on being asked by their master if they wished to be freed, Darwin suggested that answers in such circumstances were worthless. Enraged that his word had been questioned, FitzRoy lost his temper and banned Darwin from his company. The officers had nicknamed such outbursts "hot coffee", and within hours FitzRoy apologised, and asked Darwin to remain.[85] Later, FitzRoy had to remain silent when Captain Paget of the frigateHMS Samarang (another British vessel surveying the region which often crossed paths with theBeagle) visited them and recounted "facts about slavery so revolting" that undermined his claim.[86][87] Surveying of sandbanks around the harbour was completed on 18 March, and the ship made its way down the coast to survey the extent and depths of theAbrolhos reefs, completing and correctingRoussin's survey.[88]
They manoeuvredBeagle intoRio de Janeiro harbour "in first rate style" on 4 April, with Darwin enthusiastically helping. Amidst excitement at opening letters from home, he was taken aback by news that his close friend Fanny Owen was engaged to marryBiddulph ofChirk Castle.[89][90]Augustus Earle showed Darwin round the town, and they found a delightful cottage for lodgings atBotafogo. Darwin made arrangements with local estate owners, and on 8 April set off with them on a strenuous "riding excursion" toRio Macaé.[91]
McCormick had made himself disagreeable to FitzRoy andfirst lieutenantWickham,[74] so was "invalided home",[92] as he also was on other voyages.[23] In his 1884 memoirs, he claimed he had been "very much disappointed in my expectations of carrying out my natural history pursuits, every obstacle having been placed in the way of my getting on shore and making collections". Assistant SurgeonBenjamin Bynoe was made acting surgeon in his place.[93][94]
The required observations fromVillegagnon Island at Rio showed a discrepancy of 4 miles (6.4 km) of longitude in themeridian distance from Bahia to Rio, compared to Roussin's results, and FitzRoy wrote telling Beaufort he would go back to check.[8][95]
On 24 April Darwin got back to the ship, next day his books, papers, and equipment suffered minor damage when the boat taking him to Botafogo cottage was swamped. He sent his sister his "commonplace Journal" to date, inviting criticisms, and decided to stay in the cottage with Earle while the ship went to Bahia.[94][96]
Eight of the crew had gonesnipe shooting in thecutter, with an overnight stay at theMacacu River near Rio. After their return on 2 May, some fell ill with fever. The ship set off on 10 May, a seaman died en route, aship's boy and a youngmidshipman died at Bahia. The ship returned to Rio on 3 June. Having confirmed that his measurements were correct, FitzRoy sent corrections to Roussin.[97][98]
At the cottage, Darwin composed his first letter outlining his collecting to Henslow. He said he would not "send a box till we arrive at Monte Video.—it is too great a loss of time both for Carpenters & myself to pack up whilst in harbor".[69] He returned to the ship on 26 June, and they set sail on 5 July.[99]
Amidstpolitical changes,Beagle had a diplomatic role.[100] As they arrived atMontevideo on 26 July,HMSDruid signalled them to "clear for action" as British property had been seized ingrowing unrest after "military usurpation" deposedLavalleja.[101][102] They took observations for the chronometers, then on 31 July sailed toBuenos Aires to meet the governor and get maps, but were met by warning shots from a guard ship. FitzRoy promptly lodged a complaint and departed, threatening abroadside in response to any further provocation. When they got back on 4 August, FitzRoy informed theDruid's captain who set off to demand an apology. On 5 August, Town officials and the British Consul asked FitzRoy for help to quell a mutiny; the garrison was held by Black troops loyal to Lavalleja. With Darwin and 50 well-armed men from the ship he arrived at the fort, then next day withdrew leaving a stand-off. Darwin enjoyed the excitement,[103][104] and wrote "It was something new to me to walk with Pistols & Cutlass through the streets of a Town".[105][106]Druid returned on 15 August, with a long apology from the government and news that the guard-ship captain had been arrested.[107]
Darwin's first box of specimens was ready, and went on the Falmouth packetEmulous, departing on 19 August,[108][109] Henslow received the box in mid January.[76]On 22 August, after taking soundings inSamborombón Bay,Beagle began survey work down the coast fromCape San Antonio, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina.[110]
_-_Quarter_Deck_of_a_Man_of_War_on_Diskivery_(sic)_or_interesting_Scenes_on_an_Interesting_Voyage.jpg)
AtBahía Blanca, in the southern part of presentBuenos Aires Province, Darwin rode inland intoPatagonia withgauchos: he saw them usebolas to bring down "ostriches" (rheas) and ate roastarmadillo. With FitzRoy, he went for "a very pleasant cruize about the bay" on 22 September, and about ten miles (16 km) from the ship, they stopped for a while atPunta Alta. In low cliffs near the point, Darwin foundconglomerate rocks containing numerous shells and fossilised teeth and bones of gigantic extinct mammals,[112] in strata near an earth layer with shells andarmadillo fossils, suggesting to him quiet tidal deposits rather than a catastrophe.[113] With assistance (possibly from the young sailorSyms Covington acting as his servant[114][115]), Darwin collected numerous fossils over several days,[116] amusing others with "the cargoes of apparent rubbish which he frequently brought on board".[114]
Much of the second day was taken up with excavating a large skull which Darwin found embedded in soft rock, and seemed to him to be allied to therhinoceros.[117] On 8 October, he returned to the site and found a jawbone and tooth which he was able to identify usingBory de Saint-Vincent'sDictionnaire classique. He wrote home describing this and the large skull asMegatherium fossils, or perhapsMegalonyx, and excitedly noted that the only specimens in Europe were locked away in the King's collection atMadrid.[118][119] In the same layer he found a large surface of polygonal plates of bony armour. His immediate thought was that they came from an enormous armadillo like the small creatures common in the area. However, fromCuvier's misleading description of the Madrid specimen and a recent newspaper report about a fossil collected byWoodbine Parish, Darwin thought that the bony armour identified the fossil asMegatherium.[120][121] With FitzRoy, Darwin went about 30 miles (48 km) across the bay toMonte Hermoso on 19 October and found numerous fossils of smaller rodents in contrast to the hugeEdentatal mammals of Punta Alta.[122][123]
They returned to Montevideo, and on 2 November revisited Buenos Aires, passing the guard-ship which now gave them due respect.[124] From questioning the finder of theMegatherium reported in the newspaper (Woodbine Parish's agent), Darwin concluded it came from the samegeological formation as his own fossil finds.[125] He also "purchased fragments of some enormous bones" which he "was assured belonged to the former giants!!" In Montevideo from 14 November, he packaged his specimens, including all the fossils, and sent this cargo on theDuke of YorkFalmouth packet.[120][126]
The mail from home included a copy of the second volume of Charles Lyell'sPrinciples of Geology,[54] a refutation ofLamarckism in which there was no shared ancestry of different species or overall progress to match the gradual geological change. Instead, it was a continuing cycle in which species mysteriously appeared, closely adapted to their "centres of creation", then became extinct when the environment changed to their disadvantage.[127]
They reachedTierra del Fuego on 18 December 1832, and Darwin was taken by surprise at what he perceived as the crude savagery of theYaghan natives, in stark contrast to the "civilised" behaviour of the three Fuegians they were returning as missionaries (who had been given the names York Minster,Fuegia Basket andJemmy Button). He described his first meeting with the native Fuegians as being "without exception the most curious and interesting spectacle I ever beheld: I could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilised man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement." They appeared like "the representations of Devils on the Stage" as inDer Freischütz. In contrast, he said of Jemmy that "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here." (Four decades later, he recalled these impressions inThe Descent of Man to support his argument that just as humans had descended from "a lower form", civilised society had arisen by graduations from a more primitive state. He recalled how closely the Fuegians on boardBeagle "resembled us in disposition and in most of our mental faculties."[128])
At the island of "Buttons Land" on 23 January 1833, they set up a mission post with huts, gardens, furniture and crockery. Upon returning nine days later, the possessions had been looted and divided up equally by the natives. Matthews gave up, rejoining the ship and leaving the three civilised Fuegians to continue the missionary work.Beagle went on to theFalkland Islands, arriving just after theBritish return. Darwin studied the relationships of species to habitats and found ancient fossils like those he found in Wales. FitzRoy bought aschooner to assist with the surveying, and they returned to Patagonia, where it was fitted with a new copper bottom and renamedAdventure.Syms Covington assisted Darwin in preserving specimens, and his collecting was so successful that, with FitzRoy's agreement, he hired Covington as a full-time servant for £30 a year.[129]
The two ships sailed to theRío Negro in Argentina, and on 8 August 1833, Darwin left on another journey inland with thegauchos. On 12 August, he met GeneralJuan Manuel de Rosas who was then leading apunitive expedition inhis military campaign againstnative "Indians" and obtained a passport from him. As they crossed thepampas, the gauchos and Indians told Darwin of a rare smaller species ofrhea.[130] After three days atBahía Blanca, he grew tired of waiting forBeagle, and on 21 August, revisited Punta Alta where he reviewed the geology of the site in light of his new knowledge, wondering if the bones were older than the seashells. He was very successful with searching for bones, and on 1 September, found a near-complete skeleton with its bones still in position.[131][132]
He set off again and on 1 October, while searching the cliffs of theCarcarañá River, found "an enormous gnawing tooth", and then, in a cliff of theParaná River, saw "two great groups of immense bones" which were too soft to collect but a tooth fragment identified them asmastodons.[133][134] Illness delayed him atSanta Fe, and after seeing the fossilised casing of a hugearmadillo embedded in rock, he was puzzled to find a horse tooth in the same rock layer since horses had been introduced to the continent with European migration.[135][136] They took a riverboat down the Paraná River toBuenos Aires but became entangled ina revolution as rebels allied to Rosas blockaded the city. The passport helped, and with Covington, he managed to escape in a boatload of refugees. They rejoinedBeagle at Montevideo.[137]
As surveys were still in progress, Darwin set off on another 400-mile (640 km) "galloping" trip inBanda Oriental to see theUruguay River and visit the Estancia of Mr Keen nearMercedes on theRío Negro. On 25 November, he "heard of some giants bones, which as usual turned out to be those of the Megatherium" but could only extract a few broken fragments. The next day, he visited a nearby house and bought "a head of a Megatherium which must have been when found quite perfect" for about twoshillings, though the teeth had since been broken and the lower jaw had been lost. Mr Keen arranged to ship the skull downriver to Buenos Aires.[138][139][140] AtLas Piedras, a clergyman let him see fossils, including a club-like tail which he sketched and called an "extraordinary weapon".[140][141] His notes included a page showing his realisation that the cliff banks of the rivers exposed two strata formed in anestuary interrupted by an undersea stratum, indicating that the land had risen and fallen.[142]
Back at Montevideo, Darwin was introduced toConrad Martens, the replacement artist brought on boardBeagle after Augustus Earle had to leave due to health problems. They sailed south, putting in atPort Desire on 23 December, and the following day Darwin shot aguanaco which provided them with a Christmas meal. Early in the new year, Martens shot a rhea which they enjoyed eating before Darwin realised that this was the elusive smaller rhea and preserved the remains.[130] On 9 January 1834, 110 miles (180 km) further south, they reachedPort St Julian and exploring thelocal geology in cliffs near the harbour Darwin found fossils of pieces of spine and a hind leg of "some large animal, I fancy a Mastodon".[143][139] On 26 January, they entered theStraits of Magellan, and atSt. Gregory's Bay, they met half-civilised Patagonian "giants" over 6 ft (1.8 m) tall,[144] described by Darwin as "excellent practical naturalists". One told him that the smaller rheas were the only species this far south, while the larger rheas kept to the north, the species meeting around the Rio Negro.[145]
After further surveying in Tierra del Fuego, they returned on 5 March 1834 to visit the missionaries but found the huts deserted. Then canoes approached, and they found that one of the natives was Jemmy Button, who had lost his possessions and had settled into the native ways, taking a wife. Darwin had never seen "so complete & grievous a change". Jemmy came on board and dined using his cutlery properly, speaking English as well as ever, then assured them that he "had not the least wish to return to England" and was "happy and contented", leaving them gifts of otter skins and arrowheads before returning to the canoe to join his wife.[146] Of the first visit, Darwin had written that "Viewing such men, one can hardly make oneself believe that they are fellow creatures placed in the same world. .... It is a common subject of conjecture; what pleasure in life some of the less gifted animals can enjoy? How much more reasonably it may be asked with respect to these men",[147] yet Jemmy had readily adapted to civilisation and then chosen to return to his primitive ways. This raised awkward questions; it jarred with Charles Lyell's sheltered views, expressed in volume 2 of hisPrinciples of Geology, thathuman races "showed only a slight deviation from a common standard", and that acceptance of transmutation meant renouncing man's "belief in the high genealogy of his species".[148]
About this time Darwin wroteReflection on Reading My Geological Notes, the first of a series of essays included in his notes.[140] He speculated on possible causes of the land repeatedly being raised, and on a history of life in Patagonia as a sequence of named species.[149]
They returned to the Falkland Islands on 16 March, just after an incident where gauchos and Indians had butchered senior members of Vernet's settlement, and helped to put the revolt down. Darwin noted the immense number of organisms dependent on thekelp forests.[150] He received word from Henslow that his first dispatch of fossils had reached Cambridge, were highly prized by the expertWilliam Clift as showing hitherto unknown species and features of theMegatherium, and had been displayed byWilliam Buckland and Clift before the cream of British science, making Darwin's reputation.[139][151]
Beagle now sailed to southern Patagonia, and on 19 April, an expedition including FitzRoy and Darwin set off to take boats as far as possible up theSanta Cruz river, with all involved taking turns in teams dragging the boats upstream. The river cut through a series of rises, then through plateaux forming wide plains covered with shells and shingle. Darwin discussed with FitzRoy his interpretation that these terraces had been shores that had gradually raised per Lyell's theories. Several of the smaller rheas were seen in the distance but were too elusive to catch.[130] The expedition approached the Andes but had to turn back.
Darwin summarised his speculation in his essay on theElevation of Patagonia. Though tentative, it challenged Lyell's ideas. Darwin drew on measurements byBeagle's officers, as well as his own measurements, to propose that the plains had been raised in successive stages by forces acting over a wide area, rather than smaller-scale actions in a continuous movement. However, he supported Lyell in finding evidence to dismiss a sudden deluge when normal processes were suddenly speeded. Seashells he had found far inland still showing their colour suggested to him that the process had been relatively recent and could have affected human history.[152]
Beagle andAdventure now surveyed the Straits of Magellan before sailing north up the west coast, reachingChiloé Island in the wet and heavily woodedChiloé Archipelago on 28 June 1834. They then spent the next six months surveying the coast and islands southwards.[a] On Chiloé, Darwin found fragments of blacklignite andpetrified wood, at least two of which theBritish Geological Survey discovered in 2011 locked away in their collection labelled "unregistered fossil plants". Exchanged withJoseph Dalton Hooker about ten years later, one slide was signed "Chiloe, C. Darwin Esq".[156]
They arrived atValparaíso on 23 July, and Darwin "got scent of some fossil bones .... if gold or galloping will get them, they shall be mine." After several walks in the area, he obtained horses and, on 14 August, set off up the volcanicAndes with a companion. Three days later they spent an enjoyable day on the summit of the "Campana or Bell" mountain,Cerro La Campana. Darwin visited a copper mine and spent five days scrambling in the mountains before going on toSantiago, Chile. On his way back, he fell ill on 20 September and had to spend a month in bed. It is possible that he contractedChagas' disease here, leading tohis health problems after his return to England, but this diagnosis of his symptoms is disputed. He learnt that the Admiralty had reprimanded FitzRoy for buyingAdventure. FitzRoy had taken it badly, selling the ship and announcing they would go back to recheck his survey. He then had resigned his command, doubting his sanity, but was persuaded by his officers to withdraw his resignation and proceed. The artistConrad Martens left the ship and took passage to Australia.[157][158]
After waiting for Darwin,Beagle sailed on 11 November to survey the Chonos Archipelago. From here, they saw the eruption of the volcanoOsorno in the Andes. They sailed north, and Darwin wondered about the fossils he had found. The giantMastodons andMegatheriums were extinct, but he had found no geological signs of a "diluvial debacle" or of the changed circumstances that, in Lyell's view, led to species no longer being adapted to the position they were created to fit. He agreed with Lyell's idea of "the gradual birth & death of species", but, unlike Lyell, Darwin was willing to believeGiovanni Battista Brocchi's idea that extinct species had somehow aged and died out.[159][160]
They arrived at the port ofValdivia on 8 February 1835. Twelve days later, Darwin was on shore when he experienced asevere earthquake and returned to find the port town badly damaged. They sailed two hundred miles (320 km) north toConcepción, and arrived on 4 March to find that the same earthquake had devastated the city by repeated shocks and a tsunami, with even the cathedral in ruins. Darwin noted the horrors of death and destruction, and FitzRoy carefully established thatmussel beds were now above high tide, giving clear evidence of the ground rising some 9 ft (2.7 m), which he confirmed a month later. They had actually experienced the gradual process of the continent emerging from the ocean, as Lyell had indicated.[161][162]
They returned to Valparaiso on 11 March, Darwin set out on another trek up the Andes three days later and, on 21 March, reached the continental divide at 13,000 ft (4,000 m): even here, he found fossil seashells in the rocks. He felt the glorious view "was like watching a thunderstorm, or hearing in the full Orchestra a Chorus of theMessiah."[163] After going on toMendoza, they were returning by a different pass when they found a petrified forest of fossilised trees, crystallised in a sandstone escarpment showing him that they had been on a Pacific beach when the land sank, burying them in the sand which had been compressed into rock, then had gradually been raised with the continent to stand at 7,000 ft (2,100 m) in the mountains. On returning to Valparaiso with half a mule's load of specimens, he wrote to his family on 23 April that his findings, if accepted, would be crucial to the theory of the formation of the world. After another gruelling expedition in the Andes, whileBeagle was refitted, he rejoined it atCopiapó on 5 July and sailed toLima but found an armed insurrection in progress and had to stay with the ship. Here he was writing up his notes when he realised that Lyell's idea, that coral atolls were on the rims of rising extinct volcanoes, made less sense than the volcanoes gradually sinking so that the coral reefs around the island kept building themselves close to sea level and became an atoll as the volcano disappeared below. This wasa theory he would examine when they reached such islands.[164][165]
On 14 June, when about to leave Valparaiso,[166] FitzRoy had received news of the shipwreck ofHMSChallenger captained by his friendMichael Seymour[167] (Darwin had arranged two boxes for this packet ship early in the year[81][168]). On investigation, FitzRoy found that Commodore Mason was unwilling to takeHMS Blonde to the rescue for fear oflee-shore hazards, so FitzRoy "had to bully him & at last offered to go as Pilot". After "a tremendous quarrel" with hints to the Commodore ofcourt-martial, they tookBlonde to Concepción. FitzRoy rode about 64 kilometres (40 mi) on horseback with a guide to reach Seymour's camp at theLebu River, then returned to further disputes beforeBlonde set out and rescued the survivors of the shipwreck on 5 July.[169][167] Wickham tookBeagle on to reach Copiapó on 3 July, two days before Darwin rejoined the ship and they continued on to Lima. On 9 SeptemberBlonde brought FitzRoy to join them at Lima.[170]
A week out of Lima,Beagle reached theGalápagos Islands on 15 September 1835. The next day Captain FitzRoy dropped anchor near where the town ofPuerto Baquerizo Moreno is now sited, atChatham Island. At the location that is now known as Frigatebird Hill (Cerro Tijeretas), Darwin spent his first hour onshore in the Galapagos islands.[171]
Darwin eagerly looked forward to seeing newly formed volcanic islands and took every opportunity to go ashore whileBeagle was methodically moved round to chart the coast. He found broken black rocky volcanic lava scorching under the hot sun, and made detailed geological notes of features includingvolcanic cones like chimneys which reminded him of the iron foundries of industrialStaffordshire.[172] He was disappointed that he did not see active volcanoes or find strata showing uplift as he had hoped, though one of the officers found broken oyster-shells high above the sea on one of the islands.[173] Abundant giantGalápagos tortoises appeared to him almostantediluvian, and large blackmarine iguanas seemed "most disgusting, clumsy Lizards" well suited to their habitat—he noted that someone had called them "imps of darkness".[172] Darwin had learnt from Henslow about studying the geographical distribution of species, and particularly of linked species on oceanic islands and nearby continents, so he endeavoured to collect plants in flower. He found widespread "wretched-looking" thin scrub thickets of only ten species and very few insects. Birds were remarkably unafraid of humans, and in his first field note, he recorded thata mockingbird was similar to those he had seen on the continent.[32][174]
Beagle sailed on toCharles Island. By chance, they were greeted by the "Englishman"Nicholas Lawson, acting Governor of Galápagos for theRepublic of the Equator, who accompanied them up to thepenal colony. It was said that tortoises differed in the shape of the shells from island to island, and Darwin noted Lawson's statement that on seeing a tortoise, he could "pronounce with certainty from which island it has been brought".[175] Though Darwin remembered this later, he did not pay much attention at the time. However, he founda mockingbird and "fortunately happened to observe" that it differed from the Chatham Island specimen, so from then on, he carefully noted where mockingbirds had been caught.[32][174] He industriously collected all the animals, plants, insects and reptiles, and speculated about finding "from future comparison to what district or 'centre of creation' the organized beings of this archipelago must be attached."[176] At this stage, his thoughts reflected Lyell's rejection oftransmutation of species.[177]
They went on toAlbemarle Island, where Darwin saw a small jet of smoke from a recently active volcano. On 1 October, he landed near Tagus Cove and explored Beagle Crater.[178] There, he saw his firstGalapagos land iguanas. Water pits were disappointingly inadequate for drinking, but attracted swarms of small birds, and Darwin made his only note of thefinches he was not bothering to label by island.[179] He caught athird species of mockingbird.[174]
After passing the northern islands ofAbingdon,Tower andBindloe, Darwin was put ashore atJames Island for nine days together with the surgeon Benjamin Bynoe and their servants. They busily collected all sorts of specimens whileBeagle went back to Chatham Island for freshwater.[180]
After further surveying,Beagle set sail for Tahiti on 20 October 1835. Darwin wrote up his notes, and to his astonishment, found that all the mockingbirds caught on Charles, Albemarle, James and Chatham Islands differed from island to island.[32] He wrote "This birds which is so closely allied to the Thenca of Chili (Callandra of B. Ayres) is singular from existing as varieties or distinct species in the different Isds.— I have four specimens from as many Isds.— These will be found to be 2 or 3 varieties.— Each variety is constant in its own Island....".[181]
They sailed on, dining on Galapagos tortoises, and passed theatoll ofHonden Island on 9 November. They passed through theLow Islands archipelago, with Darwin remarking that they had "a very uninteresting appearance; a long brilliantly white beach is capped by a low bright line of green vegetation." Arriving at Tahiti on 15 November, he soon found interest in luxuriant vegetation and the pleasant intelligent natives who showed the benefits of Christianity, refuting allegations he had read about tyrannical missionaries overturning indigenous cultures.[182]
On 19 December, they reached New Zealand, where Darwin thought the tattooedMāori to be savages with the character of a much lower order than the Tahitians. He also noted that they and their homes were "filthily dirty and offensive". Darwin saw missionaries bringing improvement in character, as well as new farming practices with an exemplary "English farm" employing natives. Richard Matthews was left here with his elder brother Joseph Matthews who was a missionary atKaitaia. Darwin and FitzRoy agreed that missionaries had been unfairly misrepresented in tracts, particularly one written by the artistAugustus Earle which he had left on the ship. Darwin also noted many English residents of the most worthless character, including runaway convicts fromNew South Wales. By 30 December, he was glad to leave New Zealand.[183]
The first sight of Australia on 12 January 1836 reminded him of Patagonia, but inland the country improved, and he was soon filled with admiration at the bustling city ofSydney. On a journey into the interior, he came across a group of Aboriginal peoples who looked "good-humoured & pleasant & they appeared far from such utterly degraded beings as usually represented". They gave him a display of spear throwing for a shilling, and he reflected sadly on how their numbers were rapidly decreasing.[184] At a large sheep farm, he joined a hunting party and caught his first marsupial, a "potoroo" (rat-kangaroo). Reflecting on the strange animals of the country, he thought that an unbeliever "might exclaim 'Surely two distinct Creators must have been [at] work; their object however has been the same & certainly the end in each case is complete'," yet anantlion he was watching was very similar to its European counterpart. That evening he saw the even strangerplatypus and noticed that its bill was soft, unlike the preserved specimens he had seen. Aboriginal stories that they laid eggs were believed by few Europeans.[185][186]
Beagle visitedHobart,Tasmania, where Darwin was impressed by the agreeable high society of the settlers but noted that the island's "Aboriginal blacks are all removed & kept (in reality as prisoners) in a Promontory, the neck of which is guarded. I believe it was not possible to avoid this cruel step; although without doubt the misconduct of the Whites first led to the Necessity."[187] They then sailed toKing George's Sound in south-west Australia, a dismal settlement then being replaced by theSwan River Colony. Darwin was impressed by the "good disposition of the aboriginal blacks... Although true Savages, it is impossible not to feel an inclination to like such quiet good-natured men." He provided boiled rice for an aboriginal "Corrobery" dancing party performed by the men of two tribes to the great pleasure of the women and children, a "most rude barbarous scene" in which everyone appeared in high spirits, "all moving in hideous harmony" and "perfectly at their ease".[188]Beagle's departure in a storm was delayed when she ran aground. She was refloated and got on her way.
FitzRoy's instructions from the Admiralty required a detailed geological survey of a circularcoralatoll to investigate howcoral reefs formed, particularly whether they rose from the bottom of the sea or the summits of extinct volcanoes, and the effects oftides measured with specially constructed gauges. He chose theKeeling Islands in theIndian Ocean, and on arrival on 1 April, the entire crew set to work.[189] Darwin found a coconut economy, serving both the small settlement and wildlife. There was a limited range of native plants and no land birds, buthermit crabs everywhere. The lagoons teemed with a wide variety of invertebrates and fish, and he examined the atoll's structure in view ofthe theory he had developed in Lima, of encircling reefs becoming atolls as an island sank.[190] This idea was supported by the numeroussoundings FitzRoy had taken, showing a steep slope outside the reef with no living corals below 20–30fathoms (40–60 m).[191]
Arriving atMauritius on 29 April 1836, Darwin was impressed by the civilised prosperity of the French colony, which had come under British rule. He toured the island, examining its volcanic mountains and fringing coral reefs. The Surveyor-general Captain Lloyd took him on the only elephant on the island to see an elevated coral plain.[186][192] By then, FitzRoy was writing the officialNarrative of theBeagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed a joint publication. Darwin asked his family about FitzRoy's idea "to have the disposal & arranging of my journal & to mingle it with his own".[193]
Beagle reached theCape of Good Hope on 31 May. InCape Town, Darwin received a letter dated 29 January from his sister Catherine which briefly mentioned "the little books, with the Extracts from your Letters; every body is much pleased, with them, who has seen them".[194] Darwin was horrified that his careless words were in print, butNo hay remedio (it can't be helped).[195] Unknown to Darwin, his fame was spreading; extracts from his letters to Henslow had been read to theCambridge Philosophical Society on 16 November 1835 by Henslow and Sedgwick.[196] On 18 November, Sedgwick had read extracts to theGeological Society of London, and this had been reported inThe Athenæum on 21 November. On 25 December, their father received a letter from Henslow which said that Darwin would become one of the premier naturalists of the time and enclosed some copies of the pamphletExtracts from letters addressed to Professor Henslow which had been printed for private distribution. Their father "did not move from his seat till he had read every word ofyour book & he was very much gratified – he liked so much the simple clear way you gave your information".[197][198]
Darwin explored the geology of the area, reaching conclusions about the slate formation and the injection of granite seams as a liquid which differed from the ideas of Lyell and Sedgwick. The zoologistAndrew Smith showed him formations, and later discussed the large animals living on sparse vegetation, showing that a lack of luxuriant vegetation did not explain the extinction of the giant creatures in South America.[199]
Around 15 June, Darwin and FitzRoy visited the noted astronomer SirJohn Herschel. In his diary, Darwin called this "the most memorable event which, for a long period, I have had the good fortune to enjoy." His zeal for science had been stirred at Cambridge by reading Herschel's book on philosophy of science, which had guided his theorising during the voyage.[199] Their discussion is not recorded, but a few months earlier, on 20 February 1836, Herschel had written to Lyell praising hisPrinciples of Geology as a work which would bring "a complete revolution in [its] subject, by altering entirely the point of view in which it must thenceforward be contemplated." and opening a way for bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others." Herschel himself thoughtcatastrophic extinction and renewal "an inadequate conception of the Creator", and by analogy with otherintermediate causes "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".[200]
In Cape Town, missionaries were being accused of causing racial tension and profiteering, and afterBeagle set to sea on 18 June, FitzRoy wrote an open letter to theevangelicalSouth African Christian Recorder on theMoral State of Tahiti incorporating extracts from both his and Darwin's diaries to defend the reputation of missionaries. This was given to a passing ship that took it to Cape Town to become FitzRoy's (and Darwin's) first published work.[201]
On 8 July, they stopped atSt. Helena for six days. Darwin took lodgings nearNapoleon's tomb, and when writing to Henslow asking to be proposed for theGeological Society, he mentioned his suspicions "that differently from most Volcanic Islds. its structure is rather complicated. It seems strange, that this little centre of a distinct creation should, as is asserted, bear marks of recent elevation."[199][202] With a guide, he wandered over the island, noting its complex slopingstrata showingfault lines, interlaced withvolcanicdykes. He examined beds high on the hill that had been taken as seashells showing that St. Helena had risen from the ocean in recent times, but Darwin identified them as extinct species of land-shells. He noted that woodland had been destroyed by goats and hogs that had run wild since being introduced in 1502,[203] and native vegetation only predominated on high steep ridges, having been replaced by imported species.[204]
At this stage, Darwin had an acute interest in the islandbiogeography, and his description of St Helena as "a little centre of creation" in his geological diary reflects Charles Lyell's speculation in volume 2 ofPrinciples of Geology that the island would have acted as a "focus of creative force".[199] He later recalled believing in the permanence of species, but "as far as I can remember, vague doubts occasionally flitted across my mind".[205] When organising hisOrnithological Notes between mid June and August,[206] Darwin expanded on his initial notes on the GalapagosmockingbirdMimus thenca:[32]
These birds are closely allied in appearance to the Thenca of Chile or Callandra of la Plata. ... In each Isld. each kind isexclusively found: habits of all are indistinguishable. When I recollect, the fact that the form of the body, shape of scales & general size, the Spaniards can at once pronounce, from which Island any Tortoise may have been brought. When I see these Islands in sight of each other, & [but del.] possessed of but a scanty stock of animals, tenanted by these birds, but slightly differing in structure & filling the same place in Nature, I must suspect they are only varieties.
The only fact of a similar kind of which I am aware, is the constant asserted difference – between the wolf-like Fox of East & West Falkland Islds.
If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks the zoology of Archipelagoes – will be well worth examining; for such facts [wouldinserted] undermine the stability of Species.[207]
The term "would" before "undermine" had been added after writing what is now noted as the first expression of his doubts about species being immutable. That led to him becoming convinced about thetransmutation of species and hence evolution.[177] In opposing transmutation, Lyell had proposed that varieties arose due to changes in the environment, but these varieties lived in similar conditions though each on its own island. Darwin had just reviewed similar inconsistencies with mainland bird genera such asPteroptochos.[208] Though his suspicions about theFalkland Island fox may have been unsupported, the differences inGalápagos tortoises between islands were remembered, and he later wrote that he had been greatly struck from around March 1836 by the character of South American fossils and species on the Galapagos Archipelago, noting "These facts origin (especially latter) of all my views".[209]
Beagle reachedAscension Island on 19 July 1836,[210] and Darwin was delighted to receive letters from his sisters with news that Sedgwick had written toDr. Butler: "He is doing admirably in S. America, & has already sent home a Collection above all praise.— It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery— There was some risk of his turning out an idle man: but his character will now be fixed, & if God spare his life, he will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe."[211] Darwin later recalled how he "clambered over the mountains... with a bounding step and made the volcanic rocks resound under my geological hammer!."[212] He agreed with the saying attributed to the people of St Helena that "We know we live on a rock, but the poor people at Ascension live on a cinder", and noted the care taken to sustain "houses, gardens & fields placed near the summit of the central mountain".[210] (In the 1840s, Darwin worked with Hooker, who proposed in 1847 that the Royal Navy shall import tree species, a project started in 1850 which led to the creation of an artificial cloud forest on what is nowGreen Mountain.[213])
On 23 July, they set off again longing to reach home, but FitzRoy, who wanted to ensure the accuracy of his longitude measurements, took the ship across theAtlantic back to Bahia in Brazil to take check readings. Darwin was glad to see the beauties of the jungle for one last time but now compared "the stately Mango trees with the Horse Chesnuts of England."[214] The return trip was delayed for a further 11 days when weather forcedBeagle to shelter further up the coast atPernambuco, where Darwin examined rocks for signs of elevation, noted "Mangroves like rank grass", and investigated marine invertebrates at various depths on the sandbar.Beagle departed for home on 17 August.[199] After a stormy passage including a stop for supplies at theAzores, the Beagle finally reached England on 2 October 1836 and anchored atFalmouth, Cornwall.[215]
On the stormy night of 2 October 1836, immediately after arriving in Falmouth,[215] Darwin set off on theRoyal Mailcoach from Fish Strand Hill (a plaque now marks the site[216]) for the two-day journey to his family home,The Mount House inShrewsbury, Shropshire. As he wrote to FitzRoy, the countryside they passed was "beautiful & cheerful", and though the "stupid people on the coach did not seem to think the fields one bit greener than usual", he now knew "that the wide world does not contain so happy a prospect as the rich cultivated land of England".[217][218] In April 1835 Darwin had written that he was undecided whether to "sleep at the Lion, the first night," when he arrived by the daily Wonder coach, "or disturb you all in the dead of the night".[50][164] He arrived late at night on 4 October 1836,[217][219] and at breakfast the next morning greeted his family, to their delight and celebrations. His sisters assured him he did "not look the least different",[217][218] but his father's first reaction was to tell them "Why, the shape of his head is quite altered."[220][221] After time spent catching up with family, Darwin went on toCambridge on 15 October and sought Henslow's advice on organising the description and cataloguing of his collections.[222]
Darwin's father gave him an allowance that enabled him to put aside other careers. As a scientific celebrity with a reputation established by his fossils and the wide distribution ofExtracts from Letters to Henslow on South American natural history and geology, Darwin touredLondon's social institutions. By this time, he was part of the "scientificestablishment", collaborating with expert naturalists to describe his specimens and working on ideas he had been developing during the voyage. Charles Lyell gave him enthusiastic backing. In December 1836, Darwin presented a talk to theCambridge Philosophical Society. He wrote a paper proving that Chile, and the South American continent, was slowly rising, which he read to theGeological Society of London on 4 January 1837.[223]
Darwin was willing to have his diary published mixed in with FitzRoy's account, but his relatives, includingEmma andHensleigh Wedgwood, urged that it be published separately. On 30 December, the question was settled by FitzRoy taking the advice ofWilliam Broderip that Darwin's journal should form the third volume of theNarrative. Darwin set to work reorganising his diary, trimming it, and incorporating scientific material from his notes. He completed hisJournal and Remarks (now commonly known asThe Voyage of the Beagle) in August 1837, but FitzRoy was slower, and the three volumes were published in August 1839.[224]
Syms Covington stayed with Darwin as his servant. Then, on 25 February 1839, (shortly after Darwin's marriage), Covington left on good terms and migrated to Australia.[225]
Darwin had shown great ability as a collector and had done the best he could with the reference books he had on the ship. It was now the province of recognised expert specialists to establish which specimens were unknown, and make their consideredtaxonomic decisions on defining and naming new species.[226]
Richard Owen had expertise in comparative anatomy, and his professional judgements revealed a succession of similar species in the same locality, giving Darwin insights which he would later recall as being central to his new views.[226] Owen met Darwin on 29 October 1836 and quickly took on the task of describing these new fossils. At that time the only fully described fossil mammals from South America were three species ofMastodon and the giganticMegatherium.[227] On 9 November, Darwin wrote to his sister that "Some of them are turning out great treasures." The near-complete skeleton from Punta Alta was apparently very closely allied toanteaters, but of the extraordinary size of a small horse. Therhinoceros-sized head bought for two shillings near the city ofMercedes was not amegatherium, but "as far as they can guess, must have been a gnawing animal. Conceive a Rat or a Hare of such a size— What famous Cats they ought to have had in those days!"[228]
Over the following years, Owen published descriptions of the most important fossils, naming several as new species. He described the fossils fromPunta Alta as including a nearly perfect head and three fragments of heads ofMegatherium Cuvierii, the jaw of a related species which Owen namedMylodon Darwinii, and jaws ofMegalonyx Jeffersonii. The near-complete skeleton was namedScelidotherium by Owen, who found that it had most of its bones nearly in their proper relative positions.[116] At the nearby Monte Hermoso beds, numerous rodents included species allied to theBrazilian tuco-tuco and thecapybara.[123]
Owen decided that the fossils of polygonal plates of bony armour found at several locations were not from theMegatherium as Cuvier's description implied, but from a huge armadillo, as Darwin had briefly thought. Owen found a description of an earlier unnamed specimen which he namedGlyptodon clavipes in 1839.[229] Darwin's find from Punta Alta, a large surface about 3 by 2 ft (0.91 by 0.61 m) doubled over with toe bones still inside the folded armour,[116] was identified as a slightly smallerGlyptodont namedHoplophorus byPeter Wilhelm Lund in the same year.[118][229]
The huge skull from near Mercedes was namedToxodon by Owen,[230] and he showed that the "enormous gnawing tooth" from the cliffs of theCarcarañá River was a molar from this species.[231] The finds near Mercedes also included a large fragment ofGlyptodont armour and a head that Owen initially identified as aGlossotherium, but later decided was aMylodon.[232] Owen found fragments of the jaw and a tooth of anotherToxodon in the fossils from Punta Alta.[116]
The fossils from nearSanta Fe included the horse tooth which had puzzled Darwin as it had been previously thought that horses had only come to the Americas in the 16th century, close to aToxodon tooth and a tooth ofMastodon andium (nowCuvieronius hyodon). Owen confirmed that the horse tooth was of an extinct South American species which he namedEquus curvidens, and its age was confirmed by a corroded horse tooth among the Punta Alta fossils.[233] This discovery was later explained as part of theevolution of the horse.
The "soft as cheese"Mastodon bones at theParaná River were identified as two gigantic skeletons ofMastodon andium, and mastodon teeth were also identified from Santa Fe and the Carcarañá River.[234] The pieces of spine and a hind leg fromPort S. Julian, which Darwin had thought came from "some large animal, I fancy a Mastodon", gave Owen difficulties, as the creature which he namedMacrauchenia appeared to be a "gigantic and most extraordinarypachyderm", allied to thePalaeotherium, but with affinities to thellama and thecamel.[235] The fossils at Punta Alta included a pachyderm tooth which was thought probably came fromMacrauchenia.[116]
refers to:Benjamin Leadbeater, Henslow, Yarrell, Phillip Parker King,John Lort Stokes,Robert Edmond Grant,Frederick William Hope
got to St Albans & so by the Wonder to Shrewsbury on Thursday 22d [September 1831] .... The Wonder coach ran daily, from Shrewsbury to London via Wolverhampton, Coventry and St. Albans, covering the 158 miles in 15 3/4 hours. It was started in 1825 by the landlord of the Lion Inn, Isaac Taylor and his two brothers.
as for the Doctor he has gone back to England.—as he chose to make himself disagreeable to the Captain & to Wickham He was a philosopher of rather an antient date; at St Jago by his own account he madegeneral remarks during the first fortnight & collected particular facts during the last.
At Sea, 28th June, 1836
