| Second Temple Herod's Temple | |
|---|---|
בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי | |
 Model ofHerod's Temple (inspired by the writings ofJosephus) displayed within theHolyland Model of Jerusalem at theIsrael Museum | |
| Religion | |
| Affiliation | Judaism |
| Region | Land of Israel |
| Deity | Yahweh |
| Leadership | High Priest of Israel |
| Location | |
| Location | Temple Mount |
| Municipality | Jerusalem |
| State | Yehud Medinata (first) Judaea (last) |
| Country | Achaemenid Empire (first) Roman Empire (last) |
| Geographic coordinates | 31°46′41″N35°14′7″E / 31.77806°N 35.23528°E /31.77806; 35.23528 |
| Architecture | |
| Founder | Zerubbabel; refurbished byHerod the Great |
| Completed | c. 516 BCE (original) c. 18 CE (Herodian) |
| Destroyed | 70 CE (Roman siege) |
| Specifications | |
| Height (max) | c. 46 metres (151 ft) |
| Materials | Jerusalem limestone |
| Excavation dates | 1930, 1967, 1968, 1970–1978, 1996–1999, 2007 |
| Archaeologists | Charles Warren,Benjamin Mazar,Ronny Reich,Eli Shukron,Yaakov Billig |
| Present-day site | Dome of the Rock |
| Public access | Limited; seeTemple Mount entry restrictions |
TheSecond Temple (Hebrew:בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי,romanized: Bēṯ hamMīqdāš hašŠēnī,lit. 'Second House of the Sanctum') was thetemple in Jerusalem that replacedSolomon's Temple, which was destroyed during theBabylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. It was constructed around 516 BCE and later enhanced byHerod the Great around 18 BCE, consequently also being known asHerod's Temple thereafter. Defining theSecond Temple period and standing as a pivotal symbol ofJewish identity, it was the basis and namesake ofSecond Temple Judaism. The Second Temple served as the chief place of worship, ritual sacrifice (korban), and communal gathering for theJewish people, among whom it regularly attracted pilgrims for theThree Pilgrimage Festivals:Passover,Shavuot, andSukkot.
In 539 BCE, thePersian conquest of Babylon enabled theAchaemenid Empire to expand across theFertile Crescent by annexing theNeo-Babylonian Empire, including the territory of the formerKingdom of Judah, which had been annexed as theBabylonian province of Yehud during the reign of the Babylonian kingNebuchadnezzar II, who concurrentlyexiled part of Judah's population to Babylon.[1] Following this campaign, the Persian kingCyrus the Great issued the "Edict of Cyrus" (sometimes identified with theCyrus Cylinder), which is described in theHebrew Bible as a royal proclamation that authorized and encouraged the repatriation of displaced populations in the region. This event is called thereturn to Zion inEzra–Nehemiah, marking the resurgence of Jewish life in what had become the self-governingPersian province of Yehud. The reign of the Persian kingDarius the Great saw the completion of the Second Temple, signifying a period of renewed Jewish hope and religious revival. According to the biblical account, the Second Temple was originally a relatively modest structure built under the authority of the Persian-appointed Jewish governorZerubbabel, who was the grandson of the penultimate Judahite kingJeconiah.[2]
In the 1st century BCE, Herod's efforts to transform the Second Temple resulted in a grand and imposing structure and courtyard, including the large edifices and façades shown in modern models, such as theHolyland Model of Jerusalem in theIsrael Museum. TheTemple Mount, where both Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple stood, was also significantly expanded, doubling in size to become the ancient world's largest religious sanctuary.[3][4] The Temple complex was not only a place of worship but also served multiple functions, including being a site for public assemblies. TheSanhedrin, the supreme judicial court, convened in the Temple'sHall of Hewn Stones, and the compound also hosted one of the largest marketplaces in the city.[5]
In 70 CE, at the height of theFirst Jewish–Roman War, the Second Temple was destroyed by theRoman siege of Jerusalem,[a] resulting in a cataclysmic shift inJewish history.[6] The loss of the Second Temple prompted the development ofRabbinic Judaism, which remains the mainstream form of Jewish religious practices globally.
The accession ofCyrus the Great of theAchaemenid Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible.[7][8] Some rudimentary ritual sacrifice had continued at the site of the first temple following its destruction.[9] According to the closing verses of thesecond book of Chronicles and the books ofEzra andNehemiah, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1:1–4,2 Chronicles 36:22–23), construction started at the original site of the altar of Solomon's Temple.[1] These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[7] The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have beencombined with the core of theBook of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into theHellenistic era.[10]
Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolatedYehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360,[11] having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of theEuphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple.[12]
On the invitation ofZerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 goldendarics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm.[13] First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris that occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators.[14][12]
TheSamaritans wanted to help with this work but Zerubbabel and the elders declined such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple unaided. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According toEzra 4:5, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers toEcbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.[12]
Seven years later,Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews toreturn to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died,[15] and was succeeded by his sonCambyses. On his death, the "falseSmerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and thenDarius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion,[16] under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophetsHaggai andZechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the monthAdar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people,[2] although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power.
TheBook of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the Second Temple would be greater than that of the first.[17][12] While the Temple may well have been consecrated in 516, construction and expansion may have continued as late as 500 BCE.[18]
Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 586 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked various holy articles, including theArk of the Covenant[8][12] containing theTablets of Stone, before which were placed the pot ofmanna andAaron's rod,[12] theUrim and Thummim[8][12] (divination objects contained in theHoshen), theholy oil[12] and the sacred fire.[8][12] The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by theBabylonians but restored byCyrus the Great.[12][19]
No detailed description of the Temple's architecture is given in the Hebrew Bible, save that it was sixtycubits in both width and height, and was constructed with stone and lumber.[20] In the Second Temple, theHoly of Holies (Kodesh Hakodashim) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in theTabernacle, the Second Temple included theMenorah (golden lamp) for theHekhal, the Table ofShowbread and the goldenaltar of incense, with goldencensers.[12]
Following the conquest ofJudea byAlexander the Great, it became part of thePtolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when the Seleucid kingAntiochus III the Great of Syria defeated PharaohPtolemy V Epiphanes at theBattle of Paneion.
In 167 BCE,Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar toZeus erected in the Temple. He also, according toJosephus, "compelled Jews to dissolve the laws of the country, to keep their infants un-circumcised, and to sacrifice swine's flesh upon the altar; against which they all opposed themselves, and the most approved among them were put to death."[21]
These anti-Jewish persecutions provoked theMaccabean Revolt, led byJudas Maccabeus and his brothers from the priestlyHasmonean family. After several years of guerrilla warfare, theMaccabees succeeded in driving out the Seleucid forces from Jerusalem. In 164 BCE, they recaptured the Temple Mount, removed the pagan altar, and undertook the purification and rededication of the Second Temple.[22] This event is the origin of the Jewish festival ofHanukkah, which begins on the 25th ofKislev.[23][24] The earliest accounts of the holiday appear in the Books of the Maccabees, which both associate it with the 25th of Kislev—either as the date when sacrifices resumed following the cleansing of the Temple (according to1 Maccabees),[25] or as the date of the cleansing itself (according to2 Maccabees).[26][22]
There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule.
Judas theEssene, a prophetic figure who lived under the Hasmoneans, is depicted by Josephus as being in the Temple with his followers.[27]
Salome Alexandra, the queen of the Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder sonHyrcanus II as thehigh priest of Judaea. Her younger sonAristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was next in the succession, agreed to be content with being high priest.Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually, Hyrcanus fled toAretas III, king of theNabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. TheRoman generalPompey, who was in Syria fighting against theArmenians in theThird Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this, which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romansbesieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into theHoly of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.[28]
In c. 20/19 BCE,[b][30]Herod, king of Judaea, began an ambitious renovation of the Second Temple. The old temple built byZerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE.[31] The expanded sanctuary was the largest of its time.[4] Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.[31] Later, thesanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as thetemple tax.[32]
According toJosephus, the construction of the Temple itself took about a year and a half, while the porticoes and outer walls required a further eight years.[33][30] During the works, Herod was careful not to offend religious sensitivities:[34] ten thousand laborers and a thousand priests were specially trained for the construction, daily offerings continued uninterrupted,[35] and modesty partitions were erected to shield sacred rituals from view.[36][34]
Both Rabbinic tradition and Josephus preserve accounts reflecting popular views that Herod's construction of the Temple was divinely supported, with miraculous signs symbolizing God's approval and guidance of the project.[37] According to the Babylonian Talmud,"And thus we have from the days of Herod, that when they were working on the construction of the Temple, rains would fall at night. On the morrow, the winds would blow and the clouds dispersed and the sun would shine and the people would proceed with their work, and they knew that they were doing God's work."[38][37] Josephus also writes:"And it is said that during the time when the Temple was being built, no rain fell during the day, but only at night, so that there was no interruption of the work. And this story, which our fathers have handed down to us, is not at all incredible if, that is, one considers the other manifestations of power given by God."[39][37]
While the main structures were largely completed during Herod's reign, construction at the complex continued for decades, possibly until the 60s CE, as reflected in theNew Testament's mention of 46 years of work[40] and Josephus' reference to additions under the procuratorLucceius Albinus (c. 62–64 CE).[34]
In 4 BCE, following the funerary ceremonies for his father Herod,Archelaus, the ethnarch of Judea, conducted hearings with his subjects while seated on a golden throne in the Temple precincts.[41][37] In the early 40s CE, a major crisis erupted when the EmperorCaligula ordered that a statue of himself be installed in the Temple—a move that would have deeply violated Jewish religious beliefs prohibiting idolatry.[42] The Jewish population in Judaea and Galilee responded with mass protests and passive resistance, including asit-in to block the Roman army from transporting the statue.[42] Jewish leaders also mobilized diplomatically:Philo, in Rome as part of a delegation representing theJews of Alexandria, appealed to Caligula, while Agrippa I, a Herodian prince and confidant of the emperor, attempted to dissuade him. The crisis was ultimately averted with Caligula's assassination in 41 CE.[42]
Descriptions of Jerusalem by non-Jews emphasize the Temple as its central feature.[27] The 2nd-century BCE Greek historianPolybius described the Jews as a nation residing around a temple called Jerusalem,[43] whileTacitus, a Roman historian from the first century CE, wrote that "Jerusalem is the capital of the Jews. In it was a temple possessing enormous reaches."[44][45]
Religious activities around the Temple Mount during this period have been preserved by ancient sources. The Mishnah provides an eyewitness account of Yo'ezer Ish Habirah, who reports thatPharisee leaderGamaliel the Elder responded to questions from theHouse of Shammai while standing by the Eastern Gate of the Temple.[46][27] New Testament accounts describe Jesus and the apostles preaching at the Temple,[47] and indicate that the early Christian community in Jerusalem used to gather at Solomon's Portico, in the eastern part of the compound.[48] The Babylonian Talmud further states that RabbanYohanan ben Zakkai used to teach, before the Temple's destruction, "in the shadow of the sanctuary."[49][27]
Traditionalrabbinic literature states that the Second Temple stood for 420 years, and, based on the 2nd-century workSeder Olam Rabbah, placed construction in356 BCE (3824AM), 164 years later than academic estimates, and destruction in 68 CE (3828AM).[50][c]
According to theMishnah,[51] the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and theHigh Priest put his censer on it onYom Kippur.[8] The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah, known asKodashim, provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected withTemple service including thesacrifices, the Temple and its furnishings, as well asthe priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service.Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, andmeal offerings, the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as thesin offering and theguilt offering, and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple (tractateMiddot), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple (tractateTamid).[52][53][54] According to theBabylonian Talmud,[55] the Temple lacked theShekhinah (the dwelling or settling divine presence of God) and theRuach HaKodesh (holy spirit) present in the First Temple.
Herod's Temple is praised in the Babylonian Talmud.[4] InBava Batra 4a, it states: "He who has not seen the Temple of Herod has never seen a beautiful building".[56][4] Similarly, inSukkah 51b: "He who has not seen the Temple in its full construction has never seen a glorious building in his life. Which Temple? –Abaye, or it might be said, RabbiHisda, replied, The reference is to the building of Herod".[57][4]
The Babylonian Talmud, Sukkah 51b, provides a description of the stones used in Herod's construction of the Temple. According to the text, the 4th-century amoraRava said: "It was with stones of green-gray marble and white marble [marmara]." Others said: "It was with stones of blue marble and white marble. The rows of stones were set with one row slightly protruded and one row slightly indented, so that the plaster would take better." The passage adds that Herod "thought to plate the Temple with gold, but the Sages said to him: Leave it as is, and do not plate it, as it is better this way, as with the different colors and the staggered arrangement of the rows of stones, it has the appearance of waves of the sea."[58]
The Second Temple in Jerusalem was remarkable for its sheer size, surpassing typical temples in the Roman Empire.[59]
The writings of Flavius Josephus and the information in tractate Middot of theMishnah had for long been used for proposing possible designs for the Temple up to 70 CE.[1] The discovery of theTemple Scroll as part of theDead Sea Scrolls in the 20th century provided another possible source. Lawrence Schiffman states that after studying Josephus and the Temple Scroll, he found Josephus to be historically more reliable than the Temple Scroll.[60]
The Temple itself once stood on the location now occupied by theDome of the Rock, while its gates led to areas adjacent to what would later become the site of theAl-Aqsa Mosque.[61]
A golden vine adorned the gates of the Temple; it is described by both Josephus and the Mishnah. Its fame reached as far as Rome, where it was mentioned by the historianTacitus.[62][59]
Reconstruction of the temple underHerod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mounttemenos. For example, the Temple Mount complex initially measured 7 hectares (17 acres) in size, but Herod expanded it to 14.4 hectares (36 acres) and so doubled its area.[63] Herod's work on the Temple is generally dated from 20/19 BCE until 12/11 or 10 BCE. Writer Bieke Mahieu dates the work on the Temple enclosures from 25 BCE and that on the Temple building in 19 BCE, and situates the dedication of both in November 18 BCE.[64]
Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended[by whom?] to be 1,600 feet (490 m) wide by 900 feet (270 m) broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet (4.9 m) thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone blocks were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons,the largest measuring 44.6 by 11 by 16.5 feet (13.6 m × 3.4 m × 5.0 m) and weighing approximately 567–628 tons.[65][unreliable source?]
The Court of the Gentiles was primarily abazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food. Currency was also exchanged, with Roman currency exchanged forTyrian money, as also mentioned in the New Testament account ofJesus and the Money Changers, when Jerusalem was packed with Jewish pilgrims who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000.[66][67]
Above theHuldah Gates, on top the Temple walls, was theRoyal Stoa, a largebasilica praised by Josephus as "more worthy of mention than any other [structure] under the sun"; its main part was a lengthy Hall of Columns which includes 162 columns, structured in four rows.[68]
The Royal Stoa is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the 1st century BCE.[69]
The accounts of thetemptation of Christ in the gospels ofMatthew andLuke both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more 'pinnacles':
Then he [Satan] brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on the pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, "If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here."[70]
The Greek word used isπτερύγιον (pterugion), which literally means a tower, rampart, or pinnacle.[71] According toStrong's Concordance, it can mean little wing, or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet.[72] The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to the southeast corner of the Temple overlooking theKidron Valley.[73]
According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named theNicanor Gate.[74] According to Josephus, Herod the Great erected a golden eagle over the great gate of the Temple.[75]
Joachim Bouflet [fr] states that "the teams of archaeologistsNahman Avigad in 1969–1980 in theHerodian city of Jerusalem, and Yigael Shiloh in 1978–1982, in thecity of David" have proven that the roofs of the Second Temple had nodome. In this, they support Josephus' description of the Second Temple.[76]
At the time of the three pilgrimage festivals, Jerusalem became a gathering place for tens of thousands of pilgrims from across Judea,Galilee,Transjordan, and the Diaspora,[77][78][79] who stayed anywhere from a few days to several weeks.[79] Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port ofJaffa,[80] where they would join a caravan for the three-day journey to the Holy City and secure lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Thereafter, they would exchange some of their money from the standard Greek and Roman currency toJewish andTyrian money, the latter two considered acceptable for religious use.[81][82] MishnahBikkurim 3:3–4 provides a detailed account of how pilgrims were welcomed to Jerusalem during the festival of Shavuot:[83]
Those who lived near [Jerusalem] would bring fresh figs and grapes, while those who lived far away would bring dried figs and raisins. An ox would go in front of them, his horns bedecked with gold and with an olive-crown on its head. The flute would play before them [...] When they drew close to Jerusalem they would send messengers in advance, and they would adorn theirbikkurim. The governors and chiefs and treasurers would go out to greet them, and according to the rank of the entrants they would go forth. All the skilled artisans of Jerusalem would stand up before them and greet them saying, "Our brothers, men of such and such a place, we welcome you in peace." [...] When they reached the Temple Mount evenKing Agrippas would take the basket and place it on his shoulder [...] When he got to the Temple Court, the Levites would sing the song: "I will extol You, O Lord, for You have raised me up, and You have not let my enemies rejoice over me" (Psalms 30:2).[84]
This passage reflects the public and ceremonial nature of the pilgrimage, as well as the communal ethos fostered by shared ritual, music, and mutual recognition.[85] The idea that pilgrimage helped promote social cohesion is also expressed by Josephus, who writes:[85]
Let them come together three times a year from the ends of the land that the Hebrews conquer, into the city in which they establish the Temple, in order that they may give thanks to God for the benefits that they have received and that they may appeal for benefits for the nature and coming together and taking a common meal, may they be dear to each other. For it is well that they not be ignorant of one another, being compatriots and sharing in the same practices. This will occur for them through such intermingling, instilling a memory of them through sight and association, for if they remain unmixed with one another they will be thought completely strangers to each other.[86]
The Jerusalem Temple held central importance not only for Jews in Judaea, but also for Jewish communities in the Diaspora.[87] The celebrations brought a variety of languages and dialects spoken by Jews to the streets of the city.[27]Philo, a Jewish philosopher fromAlexandria, writes:
Countless multitudes from countless cities come, some over land, others by sea, from east and west and north and south at every feast. They take the temple for their port as a general haven and safe refuge from the bustle and great turmoil of life, and there they seek to find calm weather, and, released from the cares whose yoke has been heavy upon them from their earliest years, to enjoy a brief breathing space in scenes of genial cheerfulness.[88]
The importance of the Temple for the Diaspora is further illustrated by the delegation led by Philo and other Alexandrian Jews to EmperorCaligula, during which they appealed against the proposed installation of the emperor’s statue in the Temple.[42]
On the 14th ofNisan, the eve ofPassover, participants would bring a lamb or kid to the Temple for sacrifice. The slaughtering took place in the Temple courtyards, typically in the afternoon—between the ninth and eleventh hours (roughly 3–5 PM)—according to Josephus,[89] who also notes that groups of 10 to 20 people shared each animal.[90] Overall, it is estimated that several thousand sheep were sacrificed during Passover.[4] The Mishnah[91] records that the sacrifices were performed in three organized batches, with priests assisting by collecting and pouring the blood at the base of the altar.[90] Once slaughtered, the animals were roasted—inclay ovens, according to the Mishnah[92]—and eaten later that night, along with unleavened bread (matzah) and bitter herbs (maror), in accordance withExodus 12.[93] Participants also recited theHallel during the meal.[93]
Shavuot was observed on the fiftieth day following the waving of the'omer (barley offering).[94] Celebrated in the month ofSivan, it marked the beginning of the wheat harvest and served as the conclusion of the Passover season, earning it the alternative name'Atseret ("conclusion") in some sources.[94] The central Temple ritual in Shavuot was the offering of the "two loaves" of wheat bread, along with prescribed animal sacrifices, as outlined in the Torah.[94] According to rabbinic tradition,[95] while new grain (ḥadash) was permitted for general use after the omer offering, wheat for meal offerings in the Temple was permitted only from Shavuot onward.[94] Shavuot also functioned as the festival offirst fruits (bikkurim), during which pilgrims brought offerings from theseven species to the Temple priesthood.[94] According to the Mishnah,[96] thesebikkurim could be brought from Shavuot until Sukkot.[94]
The pilgrimage festival ofSukkot, which began on the 15th of Tishrei and lasted seven days, was regarded as the preeminent Jewish festival during the Second Temple period.[97][98] Its centrality is evident in the ancient sources, some referring to it simply as "the Festival".[99][98][100] Temple offerings during Sukkot involved a extraoridnarily high number of animals sacrificed daily as required by the Torah.[98][100] Central to the celebration was the procession with the 'Four Species' (which derives fromLeviticus 23)[101]—a palm branch (lulav), myrtle (hadas),willow (aravah), and citron (etrog)—which were carried, and according to the Mishnah,[102] shaken, during the recitation ofPsalm 118.[98] Another key ritual was the willow ceremony, in which large willow branches were placed around the altar.[98] Participants would circle the altar once each day and seven times on the seventh day, reciting Psalm 118 and concluding with the beating of branches. According to the Mishnah, the willow ceremony overrode the Shabbat, though theBoethusians objecting to this ruling.[103][98] The water libation ritual, symbolizing the onset of the rainy season, involved water drawn from thePool of Siloam and poured by the priest at the altar each day.[104][98] Each night, this ritual was preceded by theSimchat Beit HaShoevah, a night-long celebration held in the Temple courtyards, characterized by music, dancing, and the lighting of bonfires.[105][98][83] The Levites stood on the steps leading to the Nicanor Gate, chanting the "Songs of Ascent" from the Book of Psalms.[83]
Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement commanded in the Torah and observed on the tenth of Tishrei, was marked by aspecial Temple service performed by the high priest, as described inLeviticus 16 and later elaborated in MishnahYoma.[106] The high priest prepared for a week prior to the festival through isolation, purification, and instruction.[106] On the day itself, he put on white linen garments after the morningtamid sacrifice, offered a bull and a goat as sin offerings, and entered the Holy of Holies multiple times to sprinkle blood on theMercy seat and pronounce theDivine Name.[106] He also carried out the scapegoat ritual, confessing Israel's sins over a second goat and sending it into the wilderness. After further immersions and changes of garments, the high priest concluded the day with additional sacrifices and the eveningtamid.[106]
Archaeological understanding of the Second Temple is primarily derived from investigations of the outer walls of the Temple complex, as direct excavations on the Temple Mount itself have been limited due to the presence of later Islamic structures.[30] Foundational research was conducted by Sir Charles Warren between 1867 and 1870; his work remains a principal source for the site's architectural layout.[30]
In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 cm × 90 cm (24 in × 35 in) and engraved with Greekuncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified byCharles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being theTemple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended to those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond thesoreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:
ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ
ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ
ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ
ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ
ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ
ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ
ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ
Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death."
Today, the stone is preserved inIstanbul's Museum of Antiquities.[107]
In 1935 a fragment of another similar Temple warning inscription was found.[107]
The word "foreigner" has an ambiguous meaning. Some scholars believe it referred to all gentiles, regardless of ritual purity status or religion. Others argue that it referred to unconverted Gentiles sinceHerod wrote the inscription. Herod himself was a convertedIdumean (or Edomite) and was unlikely to exclude himself or his descendants.[108]
Anotherancient inscription, partially preserved on a stone discovered below the southwest corner of the Herodian Mount, contains the words "to the place of trumpeting". The stone's shape suggests that it was part of a parapet, and it has been interpreted as belonging to a spot on the Mount described by Josephus, "where one of the priests to stand and to give notice, by sound of trumpet, in the afternoon of the approach, and on the following evening of the close, of everyseventh day" closely resembling what theTalmud says.[109]
After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near theLions' Gate. Thus, the remaining part of theTemple Mount is not only theWestern Wall. Currently,Robinson's Arch (named after AmericanEdward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. Visitors and pilgrims also entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side that led throughcolonnades to the top of the platform. TheSouthern wall was designed as a grand entrance.[110] Recent archaeological digs have found numerousmikvehs (ritual baths) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, and a grand stairway leading to one of the now blocked entrances.[110]
Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now calledSolomon's Stables, which still exist. Their current renovation by theWaqf is extremely controversial.[111]
On September 25, 2007,Yuval Baruch,archaeologist with theIsraeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound that may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on theTemple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE.[how?] ArchaeologistEhud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.[112]
More recent findings from theTemple Mount Sifting Project includefloor tiling from the Second Temple period.[113]
TheMagdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.[114]
In 66 CE, the Jewish population of Judaea launched arebellion against the Roman Empire. Four years later, on the Hebrew calendrical date ofTisha B'Av, either 4 August 70[115] or 30 August 70,[116]Roman legions underTitusretook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and Herod's Temple. Josephus, while an apologist for the Empire, claims the burning of the Temple was the impulsive act of a Roman soldier, despite Titus's orders to preserve it, whereas later Christian sources, traced toTacitus, suggest that Titus himself authorized the destruction, a view currently favored by modern scholars, though the debate persists.[117]
Historical accounts relate that not only the Jewish Temple was destroyed, but also the entire Lower city of Jerusalem.[118] Even so, according to Josephus, Titus did not totally raze the towers (such as theTower of Phasael, now erroneously called theTower of David), keeping them as a memorial of the city's strength.[119][120] TheMidrash Rabba (Eikha Rabba 1:32) recounts a similar episode related to the destruction of the city, according to which RabbanYohanan ben Zakkai, during the Roman siege of Jerusalem, requested ofVespasian that he spare the westernmost gates of the city (Hebrew:פילי מערבאה) that lead to Lydda (Lod). When the city was eventually taken, the Arab auxiliaries who had fought alongside the Romans under their general, Fanjar, also spared that westernmost wall from destruction.[121]
TheArch of Titus, which was built inRome to commemorate Titus's victory in Judea, depicts aRoman triumph, with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including thetemple menorah. According to an inscription on theColosseum, EmperorVespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79–possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.[122] The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including thepriesthood and theSadducees.[123]
The golden vessels from the Temple were publicly displayed in theTemple of Peace, a monumental complex completed by Vespasian in 75 CE. This display formed part of a broader collection of imperial trophies and artworks.[124] In contrast, the Torah scroll and the purple Temple curtains, were not exhibited but instead deposited and guarded in Vespasian's residence. Later traditions and historical sources trace the possible movement of these objects across the ancient world. A Jewish tradition attributed to rabbiEliezer ben Jose, dated to around 170 CE, claims he saw a golden diadem and the Temple curtain in Rome, possibly in the imperial treasury.[125] In the 6th century, the Byzantine historian Procopius reported that the "treasures of the Jews" captured by Titus had been looted from Rome by theVandal kingGeiseric in 455 CE and taken toCarthage.[126][125] These were later recovered by the Byzantine generalBelisarius in 533 CE and paraded in a triumphal procession in Constantinople.[126][125] Alarmed by a Jewish observer's warning that the objects belonged only in their original sacred location, EmperorJustinian ordered their transfer to Christian churches in Jerusalem.[126][125] The ultimate fate of the Temple treasures remains uncertain. Some later medieval sources claim they remained in Rome, while others suggest they may have been lost during thePersian sack of Jerusalem in 614 CE, if they had remained in the city.[125]
Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, EmperorHadrian established a newRomancolonia calledAelia Capitolina. At the end of theBar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred. Jews were banned from entering Jerusalem.[28] ARoman temple was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple for the practice ofRoman religion.
The destruction of the Temple often serves as a backdrop for poetic expressions of the longing to return to and rebuild the Temple and Jerusalem. One suchpiyyut (Jewish liturgical poem), recited on Yom Kippur, isAvodah, a poetic depiction of the High Priest's ritual on that day.[127]
The destruction of the First and Second Temples is commemorated onTisha B'Av, a major Jewishfast day. Leading up to this, a three-week period of mourning is observed, during which weddings and haircuts are forbidden, and many Jews abstain from eating meat during the first eight days of Av.[127]
Jewish wedding ceremonies traditionally conclude with the groom breaking a glass in remembrance of the destruction of Jerusalem. In late medieval Europe, Jewish brides would often wear a large, decorative ring symbolizing the Temple, while grooms would place ashes on their heads to commemorate the destruction.[127]
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The hope for the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple is a central theme in Jewish prayer, art, and life cycle events, consistently expressed through various cultural and religious practices.[128]Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a futureThird Temple in Jerusalem.[129]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link);Maimonides (1974).Sefer Mishneh Torah - HaYad Ha-Chazakah (Maimonides' Code of Jewish Law) (in Hebrew). Vol. 4. Jerusalem: Pe'er HaTorah. pp. 184–185 [92b–93a] (Hil.Shmitta ve-yovel 10:2–4).OCLC 122758200.According to this calculation, this year which is one-thousand, one-hundred and seven years following the destruction, which year in theSeleucid era counting is [today] the 1,487th year (corresponding with Tishri 1175–Elul 1176CE), being the year 4,936anno mundi, it is a Seventh Year [of the seven-year cycle], and it is the 21st year of theJubilee" (END QUOTE). = the destruction occurring in the lunar month of Av, two months preceding the New Year of 3,829 anno mundi.
Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. [...] The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906)."Temple, The Second".The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Kaufmann, Kohler (1901–1906)."Ḥanukkah". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
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