Aseal is a device for making an impression inwax,clay,paper, or some other medium, including anembossment on paper, and is also the impression thus made. The original purpose was to authenticate a document, or to prevent interference with a package or envelope by applying a seal which had to be broken to open the container (hence the modern English verb "to seal", which implies secure closing without an actual wax seal).
The seal-making device is also referred to as the sealmatrix ordie; the imprint it creates as theseal impression (or, more rarely, thesealing).[1] If the impression is made purely as a relief resulting from the greater pressure on the paper where the high parts of the matrix touch, the seal is known as adry seal; in other cases ink or another liquid or liquefied medium is used, in another color than the paper.
In most traditional forms of dry seal the design on the seal matrix is inintaglio (cut below the flat surface) and therefore the design on the impressions made is inrelief (raised above the surface). The design on the impression will reverse (be a mirror-image of) that of the matrix, which is especially important when script is included in the design, as it very often is. This will not be the case if paper is embossed from behind, where the matrix and impression read the same way, and both matrix and impression are in relief. Howeverengraved gems were often carved in relief, calledcameo in this context, giving a "counter-relief" or intaglio impression when used as seals. The process is essentially that of amould.
Most seals have always given a single impression on an essentially flat surface, but in medieval Europe two-sided seals with two matrices were often used by institutions or rulers (such as towns,bishops and kings) to make two-sided or fully three-dimensional impressions in wax, with a "tag", a piece of ribbon or strip ofparchment, running through them. These "pendent" seal impressions dangled below the documents they authenticated, to which the attachment tag was sewn or otherwise attached (single-sided seals were treated in the same way).
Some jurisdictions considerrubber stamps[2] or specified signature-accompanying words such as "seal" or "L.S." (abbreviation oflocus sigilli, "place of the seal") to be the legal equivalent of,i.e., an equally effective substitute for, a seal.[3]
In the United States, the word "seal" is sometimes assigned to afacsimile of the seal design (in monochrome or color), which may be used in a variety of contexts including architectural settings, onflags, or on officialletterheads. Thus, for example, theGreat Seal of the United States, among other uses, appears on the reverse of theone-dollar bill; and several of theseals of the U.S. states appear on their respectivestate flags. In Europe, althoughcoats of arms andheraldic badges may well feature in such contexts as well as on seals, the seal design in its entirety rarely appears as a graphical emblem and is used mainly as originally intended: as an impression on documents.
The study of seals is known assigillography or sphragistics.
Thestamp seal was a common seal die, frequently carved from stone, known at least since the6th millennium BC (Halaf culture[4]) and probably earlier. The oldest stamp seals were button-shaped objects with primitive ornamental forms chiseled onto them.[5]
Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of considerable importance inarchaeology andart history. In ancientMesopotamia carved or engravedcylinder seals in stone or other materials were used. These could be rolled along to create an impression on clay (which could be repeated indefinitely), and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck. Many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. Fromancient Egypt seals in the form ofsignet rings, including some with the names of kings, have been found; these tend to show only names inhieroglyphics.
Recently,[when?] seals datable to theHimyarite age have come to light inSouth Arabia. One example shows a name written inAramaic (Yitsḥaq bar Ḥanina) engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression.
From the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In theEarly Minoan age these were formed of soft stone and ivory and show particular characteristic forms. By theMiddle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs and materials appear. Hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. TheLate Bronze Age is the time par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring, which continued into theArchaic, Classical andHellenistic periods, in the form of pictorialengraved gems. These were a major luxury art form and became keenly collected, with KingMithridates VI of Pontus the first major collector according toPliny the Elder. His collection fell as booty toPompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome. Engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century. Pliny also explained the significance of the signet ring, and how over time this ring was worn on the little finger.[6][failed verification]
Joseon-era Korean royal seal with knob in the form of a turtle, late 16th-17th century, cast bronze with gilding, 6.98 x 15.24 x 15.24 cm,Los Angeles County Museum of Art (US)
徐永裕印;Xú Yǒngyù yìn, rotating character seal of Xú YǒngyùA demonstration of the use of a standardized seal (Chinese:公章) (red colour) for organizations in China
Known asyinzhang (Chinese:印章) inGreater China,injang inKorea,inshō inJapan,ấn triện (orấn chương) inVietnam, seals have been used in East Asia as a form of written identification since theQin dynasty (221 BC–). The seals of theHan dynasty were impressed in a soft clay, but from theTang dynasty a red ink made fromcinnabar was normally used.[7] Even in modern times, seals, often known as "chops" in local colloquial English, are still commonly used instead of handwrittensignatures toauthenticate official documents or financial transactions. Both individuals and organizations have official seals, and they often have multiple seals in different sizes and styles for different situations. East Asian seals usually bear the names of the people or organizations represented, but they can also bear poems or personal mottoes. Sometimes both types of seals, or large seals that bear both names and mottoes, are used to authenticate official documents. Seals are so important in East Asia that foreigners who frequently conduct business there also commission the engraving of personal seals.
East Asian seals are carved from a variety of hard materials, including wood, soapstone, sea glass and jade. East Asian seals are traditionally used with a red oil-based paste consisting of finely ground cinnabar, which contrasts with the black ink traditionally used for theink brush. Red chemical inks are more commonly used in modern times for sealing documents. Seal engraving is considered a form ofcalligraphy in East Asia. Like ink-brush calligraphy, there are several styles of engraving. Some engraving styles emulate calligraphy styles, but many styles are so highly stylized that the characters represented on the seal are difficult for untrained readers to identify. Seal engravers are considered artists, and, in the past, several famous calligraphers also became famous as engravers. Some seals, carved by famous engravers, or owned by famous artists or political leaders, have become valuable as historical works of art.
Because seals are commissioned by individuals and carved by artists, every seal is unique, and engravers often personalize the seals that they create. The materials of seals and the styles of the engraving are typically matched to the personalities of the owners. Seals can be traditional or modern, or conservative or expressive. Seals are sometimes carved with the owners'zodiac animals on the tops of the seals. Seals are also sometimes carved with images or calligraphy on the sides.
Although it is a utilitarian instrument of daily business in East Asia, westerners and other non-Asians seldom see Asian seals except on Asian paintings and calligraphic art. All traditional paintings inChina,Japan,Korea, and the rest of East Asia are watercolor paintings on silk, paper, or some other surface to which the red ink from seals can adhere. East Asian paintings often bear multiple seals, including one or two seals from the artist, and the seals from the owners of the paintings.
There is a direct line of descent from the seals used in the ancient world, to those used in medieval and post-medieval Europe, and so to those used in legal contexts in the western world to the present day. Seals were historically most often impressed insealing wax (often simply described as "wax"): in the Middle Ages, this generally comprised a compound of about two-thirdsbeeswax to one-third of some kind ofresin, but in the post-medieval period the resin (and other ingredients) came to dominate.[8] During the early Middle Ages seals of lead, or more properly "bullae" (from the Latin), were in common use both in East and West, but with the notable exception of documents ("bulls") issued by thePapal Chancery these leaden authentications fell out of favour in western Christendom.[9]Byzantine Emperors sometimes issued documents with gold seals, known asGolden Bulls.
During the early Byzantine period these rings were used for sealing personal documents and validating wills and testaments. 6th century, silver.[10] The Walters Art Museum.
Wax seals were being used on a fairly regular basis by most western royalchanceries by about the end of the 10th century. In England, few wax seals have survived of earlier date than the Norman Conquest,[9] although some earlier matrices are known, recovered from archaeological contexts: the earliest is a gold double-sided matrix found nearPostwick, Norfolk, and dated to the late 7th century; the next oldest is a mid-9th-century matrix of a Bishop Ethilwald (probably Æthelwold, Bishop of East Anglia).[11] The practice of sealing in wax gradually moved down the social hierarchy from monarchs and bishops to great magnates, to petty knights by the end of the 12th century, and to ordinary freemen by the middle of the 13th century.[12] They also came to be used by a variety of corporate bodies, includingcathedral chapters, municipalities, monasteries etc., to validate the acts executed in their name.[9]
Traditional wax seals continue to be used on certain high-status and ceremonial documents, but in the 20th century they were gradually superseded in many other contexts by inked or dry embossed seals and byrubber stamps.
While manyinstruments formerly required seals for validity (e.g.deeds orcovenants) it is now unusual in most countries in the west for private citizens to use seals. In Central and Eastern Europe, however, as in East Asia, a signature alone is considered insufficient to authenticate a document of any kind in business, and all managers, as well as many book-keepers and other employees, have personal seals[citation needed], normally just containing text, with their name and their position. These are applied to all letters, invoices issued, and similar documents. In Europe these are today plastic self-inking stamps.
Notaries also still use seals on a daily basis. At least in Britain, each registered notary has an individual personal seal, registered with the authorities, which includes his or her name and a pictorial emblem, often an animal—the same combination found in many seals from ancient Greece.
Seals are used primarily to authenticate documents, specifically those which carry somelegal import. There are two main ways in which a seal may be attached to a document. It may be applied directly to the face of the paper orparchment (anapplied seal); or it may hang loose from it (apendent seal). A pendent seal may be attached to cords or ribbons (sometimes in the owner'slivery colors), or to the two ends of a strip (ortag) of parchment, threaded through holes or slots cut in the lower edge of the document: the document is often folded double at this point (aplica) to provide extra strength. Alternatively, the seal may be attached to a narrow strip of the material of the document (again, in this case, usually parchment), sliced and folded down, as a tail ortongue, but not detached.[13][14] The object in all cases is to help ensure authenticity by maintaining the integrity of the relationship between document and seal, and to prevent the seal's reuse. If a forger tries to remove an applied seal from its document, it will almost certainly break. A pendent seal is easily detached by cutting the cords or strips of parchment, but the forger would then have great difficulty in attaching it to another document (not least because the cords or parchment are normally knotted inside the seal), and would again almost certainly break it.
In the Middle Ages, the majority of seals were pendent. They were attached both tolegal instruments and toletters patent (i.e. open letters) conferring rights or privileges, which were intended to be available for all to view. In the case of important transactions or agreements, the seals of all parties to the arrangement as well as of witnesses might be attached to the document, and so once executed it would carry several seals. Most governments still attach pendent seals toletters patent.
Hand-folded letter sealed with wax and stamped with capital letter "A". If a letter is folded and sealed correctly, a wax seal can eliminate the need for an envelope as demonstrated in the above picture.
Applied seals, by contrast, were originally used to seal a document closed: that is to say, the document would be folded and the seal applied in such a way that the item could not be opened without the seal being broken.[15] Applied seals were used onletters close (letters intended only for the recipient) and parcels to indicate whether or not the item had been opened or tampered with since it had left the sender, as well as providing evidence that the item was actually from the sender and not a forgery. In the post-medieval period, seals came to be commonly used in this way forprivate letters. A letter writer would fold the completed letter, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page, and then impress a ring or other seal matrix. Governments sometimes sent letters to citizens under the governmental seal for their eyes only, known as letters secret. Wax seals might also be used withletterlocking techniques to ensure that only the intended recipient would read the message.[16] In general, seals are no longer used in these ways except for ceremonial purposes. However, applied seals also came to be used onlegal instruments applied directly to the face of the document, so that there was no need to break them, and this use continues.
Historically, the majority of seals were circular in design, although ovals, triangles, shield-shapes and other patterns are also known. The design generally comprised a graphic emblem (sometimes, but not always, incorporatingheraldic devices), surrounded by a text (thelegend) running around the perimeter. The legend most often consisted merely of the words "The seal of [the name of the owner]", either in Latin or in the localvernacular language: the Latin wordSigillum was frequently abbreviated to a simpleS:. Occasionally, the legend took the form of amotto.
In the Middle Ages it became customary for the seals of women and of ecclesiastics to be given avesica (pointed oval) shape. The central emblem was often a standing figure of the owner, or (in the case of ecclesiastical seals) of a saint. Medieval townspeople used a wide variety of different emblems but some had seals that included an image relating to their work.[18]
Sealing wax was naturally yellowish or pale brownish in tone, but could also be artificially colored red or green (with many intermediary variations). In some medieval royal chanceries, different colours of wax were customarily used for different functions or departments of state, or to distinguish grants and decrees made in perpetuity from more ephemeral documents.[19][20]
The matrices for pendent seals were sometimes accompanied by a smallercounter-seal, which would be used to impress a small emblem on the reverse of the impression. In some cases the seal and counter-seal would be kept by two different individuals, in order to provide an element of double-checking to the process of authentication. Sometimes, a large official seal, which might be in the custody of chancery officials, would need to be counter-sealed by the individual in whose name it had been applied (the monarch, or the mayor of a town): such a counter-seal might be carried on the person (perhaps secured by a chain or cord), or later, take the form of a signet ring, and so would be necessarily smaller.[21] Other pendent seals were double-sided, with elaborate and equally-sizedobverses and reverses. The impression would be formed by pressing a "sandwich" of matrices and wax firmly together by means of rollers or, later, a lever-press or ascrew press.[22][23] Certain medieval seals were more complex still, involving two levels of impression on each side of the wax which would be used to create a scene of three-dimensional depth.[24][25]
On the death of a seal-holder, as a sign of continuity, a son and heir might commission a new seal employing the same symbols and design-elements as those used by his father. It is likely that this practice was a factor in the emergence of hereditaryheraldry in western Europe in the 12th century.[26][27]
Ecclesiastical seals are frequentlymandorla-shaped, as in the shape of analmond, also known asvesica-shaped. The use of a seal by men of wealth and position was common before the Christian era, but high functionaries of the Church adopted the habit.
An incidental allusion in one ofSt. Augustine's letters (217 to Victorinus) indicates that he used a seal.[9] The practice spread, and it seems to be taken for granted by KingClovis I at the very beginning of theMerovingian dynasty.[28][9]
Later ecclesiastical synods require that letters under thebishop's seal should be given topriests when for some reason they lawfully quit their own proper diocese. Such a ruling was enacted at Chalon-sur-Saône in 813.Pope Nicholas I in the same century complained that the bishops of Dôle and Reims had, "contra morem" (contrary to custom), sent their letters to him unsealed.[29][9] The custom of bishops possessing seals may from this date be assumed to have been pretty general.[9]
Seals are also affixed onarchitectural orengineering construction documents, orland survey drawings, to certify the identity of thelicensed professional who supervised the development.[30][31][32] Depending on theauthority having jurisdiction for the project, these seals may be embossed and signed, stamped and signed, or in certain situations a computer generated facsimile of the original seal validated by a digital certificate owned by the professional may be attached to a security protected computer file.[33] The identities on the professional seals determine legal responsibility for any errors or omissions, and in some cases financial responsibility for their correction as well as the territory of their responsibility, e.g.: "State of Minnesota".[34]
In some jurisdictions, especially in Canada, it is a legal requirement for a professional engineer to seal documents in accordance with the Engineering Profession Act and Regulations. Professional engineers may also be legally entitled to seal any document they prepare. The seal identifies work performed by, or under the direct supervision of, a licensed professional engineer, and assures the document's recipient that the work meets the standards expected of experienced professionals who take personal responsibility for their judgments and decisions.
In oldEnglish law, acocket was acustom house seal; or a certified document given to a shipper as a warrant that his goods have been duly entered and have paid duty.[35][36] Hence, inScotland, there was an officer called theclerk of the cocket. It may have given its name tococket bread, which was perhaps stamped as though with a seal.
The importance of the seal as a means of authentication necessitated that when authority passed into new hands the old seal should be destroyed and a new one made. When the pope dies it is the first duty of theCardinal Camerlengo to obtain possession of theRing of the Fisherman, the papal signet, and to see that it is broken up. A similar practice prevailed in the Middle Ages and it is often alluded to by historians, as it seems to have been a matter of some ceremony.[9] For example, on the death ofRobert of Holy Island, Bishop of Durham, in 1283, the chroniclerRobert Greystones reports: "After his burial, his seal was publicly broken up in the presence of all by Master Robert Avenel."[37]Matthew Paris gives a similar description of the breaking of the seal of William of Trumpington,Abbot of St Albans, in 1235.[9]
The practice is less widely attested in the case of medieval laypeople, but certainly occurred on occasion, particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries.[38][39] Silver seal matrices have been found in the graves of some of the 12th-century queens of France. These were probably deliberately buried as a means of cancelling them.[40][41]
When KingJames II of England was dethroned in theGlorious Revolution of 1688/9, he is supposed to have thrown theGreat Seal of the Realm into theRiver Thames before his flight to France in order to ensure that the machinery of government would cease to function. It is unclear how much truth there is to this story, but certainly the seal was recovered: James's successors,William III andMary used the same Great Seal matrix, fairly crudely adapted – possibly quite deliberately, in order to demonstrate the continuity of government.[42]
Armigerous signet ring bearing the arms of the Baronnet family; goldsmith: Jean-Pierre Gautheron, ParisGolden ring, with cartouche and hieroglyphic name ofTutankhamun: 'Perfect God, Lord of the Two Lands' ('Ntr-Nfr, Neb-taui'; right to left columns)—Musée du Louvre.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toSignet rings.
A signet ring is a ring bearing on its flat top surface the equivalent of a seal. A typical signet ring has a design, often a family or personalcrest, created inintaglio so that it will leave a raised (relief) impression of the design when the ring is pressed onto liquidsealing wax. The design is often made out ofagate,carnelian, orsardonyx which tend not to bind with the wax. Most smaller classicalengraved gems were probably originally worn as signet rings, or as seals on a necklace.
The wearing of signet rings (from Latin "signum" meaning "sign" or "mark") dates back to ancient Egypt: the seal of a pharaoh is mentioned in theBook of Genesis. Genesis 41:42: "Removing his signet ring from his hand,Pharaoh put it onJoseph's hand; he arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain around his neck."
Because it is used to attest to the authority of its bearer, the ring has also been seen as a symbol of power, which is why it is included in theregalia of certain monarchies. After the death of a Pope, the destruction of his signet ring is a prescribed act clearing the way for thesede vacante and subsequent election of a new Pope.[43]
Signet rings are also used as a souvenir or membership attribute, e.g.,class rings (which typically bear thecoat of arms or crest of the school). One may also have their initials engraved as a sign of their personal stature.[citation needed] Traditionally, signet rings were worn either on thelittle or the ring finger of the least dominant hand, with the most common usage being on the little.
The less noble classes began wearing and using signet rings as early as the 13th century. In the 17th century, signet rings fell out of favor in the upper levels of society, replaced by other means for mounting and carrying the signet. In the 18th century, though, signet rings again became popular, and by the 19th century, men of all classes wore them.[44]
Since at least the 16th century there have also been pseudo-signet rings where the engraving is not reversed (mirror image), as it should be if the impression is to read correctly.[45]
Rings have been used since antiquity as spy identification and in espionage. During World War II, US Air Force personnel would privately purchase signet rings with a hidden compartment that would hold a small compass or hidden message.MI9 purchased a number of signet rings from Regent Street jewelers that were used to conceal compasses.[46]
In modern use, seals are used to tamper-proof equipment. For example, to prevent gas and electricity meters frombeing interfered with to show lower chargeable readings, they may be sealed with a lead or plastic seal with a government marking, typically fixed to a wire that passes through part of the meter housing. The meter cannot be opened without cutting the wire or damaging the seal.[47][48]
Specially-madetamper-evident labels are available which are destroyed if the protected container or equipment is opened, functionally equivalent to a wax seal.[49] They are used to protect things which must not be tampered with such as pharmaceuticals, equipment whose opening voids a manufacturer's warranty, etc.
The expression "seal of approval" refers to a formal approval, regardless whether it involves a seal or other external marking, by an authoritative person or institute.
It is also part of the formal name of certain quality marks, such as:
^John Cherry, "Medieval and post-medieval seals", in Collon 1997, pp. 130–131.
^Markus Späth, "Memorialising the glorious past: thirteenth-century seals from English cathedral priories and their artistic contexts", in Schofield 2015, p. 166.
^Wagner, Anthony (1956).Heralds and Heraldry in the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 13–15.
^Paul Brand, "Seals and the law in the thirteenth century", in Schofield 2015, pp. 111–19 (at p. 115).
^Cherry, "Medieval and post-medieval seals", in Collon 1997, p. 134.
^Dąbrowska, Elżbieta (2011). "Les sceaux et les matrices de sceaux trouvés dans le tombes médiévales". In Gil, Marc; Chassel, Jean-Luc (eds.).Pourquois les sceaux? La sigillographie, nouvel enjeu de l'histoire de l'art. Lille: Centre de Gestion de l'Édition Scientifique. pp. 31–43.
Adams, Noël; Cherry, John; Robinson, James, eds. (2007).Good Impressions: Image and Authority in Medieval Seals. British Museum Research Publications 168. London: British Museum.ISBN978-0-86159-168-8.
Ameri, Marta; Costello, Sarah Kielt; Jamison, Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer, eds. (2018).Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: case studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107194588.
Chassel, Jean-Luc (2003).Sceaux et usages de sceaux: images de la Champagne médiévale. Paris: Somogny.ISBN2-85056-643-8.
Cherry, John (1992). "The breaking of seals".Medieval Europe 1992: pre-printed papers: vol. 7: Art and Symbolism. York: Medieval Europe 1992. pp. 23–27.ISBN0952002361.
Cherry, John; Berenbeim, Jessica; Beer, Lloyd de, eds. (2018).Seals and Status: power of objects. British Museum Research Publication. Vol. 213. London: British Museum.ISBN9780861592135.
Di Palma, Salvatore (2015).The History of Marks from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Société des écrivains.
Collon, Dominique, ed. (1997).7000 Years of Seals. London: British Museum Press.ISBN0-7141-1143-0.
Grisar, Josef; De Lasala, Fernando (1997).Aspetti della sigillografia. Rome.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Harvey, P. D. A.; McGuinness, Andrew (1996).A Guide to British Medieval Seals. London: British Library and Public Record Office.ISBN0-7123-0410-X.
Jenkinson, Hilary (1968).Guide to Seals in the Public Record Office. Public Record Handbooks. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
McEwan, John (2016).Seals in Medieval London, 1050–1300: A Catalogue. London Record Society Extra Series. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer.ISBN978-0-900952-56-2.
Morris, David (2012).Matrix: A Collection of British Seals. Whyteleaf.ISBN978-0-9570102-0-8.
Pastoureau, Michel (1981).Les sceaux. Turnhout: Brepols.
Posse, Otto (1913).Die Siegel der deutschen Kaiser und Könige, von 751 bis 1913. Vol. 5. Dresden.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Accessible on Wikisource
Schofield, P. R.; New, E. A., eds. (2016).Seals and Society: medieval Wales, the Welsh marches and their English border region. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.ISBN9781783168712.
Yule, Paul (1981).Early Cretan Seals: A Study of Chronology. Marburger Studien zur Vor und Frühgeschichte 4. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.ISBN3-8053-0490-0.
Not All Online Authority Seals are Credible - Harvard's Ben Edelman says "Suppose users have seen a seal on dozens of sites that turn out to be legitimate. Dubious sites can present that same seal to encourage more users to buy, register, or download."
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(8634691430).jpg)
