Scottish literature in the eighteenth century isliterature written inScotland or byScottish writers in the eighteenth century. It includes literature written inEnglish,Scottish Gaelic andScots, in forms including poetry, drama and novels. After theUnion in 1707 Scottish literature developed a distinct national identity.Allan Ramsay led a "vernacular revival", the trend forpastoral poetry and developed theHabbie stanza. He was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English who includedWilliam Hamilton of Gilbertfield, Robert Crawford,Alexander Ross,William Hamilton of Bangour,Alison Rutherford Cockburn, andJames Thomson. The eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures includedRob Donn Mackay,Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir, Uillean Ross andAlasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair, who helped inspire a new form of nature poetry.James Macpherson was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written byOssian.Robert Burns is widely regarded as thenational poet.
Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such asCatherine Trotter and David Crawford, who developed the character of the stage Scot.Newburgh Hamilton produced comedies and later wrote the libretto for Handel'sSamson (1743). James Thomson's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings.David Mallet'sEurydice (1731) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play. The operaMasque of Alfred (1740) was a collaboration between Thompson, Mallet and composerThomas Arne, with Thompson supplying the lyrics to the patriotic songRule, Britannia!. Inside Scotland drama faced hostility from the Kirk. Allan Ramsay was a major supporter of Scottish theatre, establishing a small theatre in Carruber's Close in Edinburgh, and there is evidence of companies elsewhere in Scotland, but the1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and these theatres soon closed. A three-decade period followed where institutional and organised drama was in abeyance. The subterfuge of offering a free drama at the end of a musical performance was adopted.Douglas, by ministerJohn Home, was first performed in 1756 in Edinburgh. It was a success in both Scotland and England but caused a controversy with the kirk that probably led Home to leave Scotland for London. Other emigres to London includedTobias Smollett. Despite the opposition of the church theatre going began to emerge as a regular part of elite life in Scotland. The government granted the first licence to a Scottish theatre under the act in 1767. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read. Important Scottish playwrights includedHenry Mackenzie,John Logan's,Archibald Maclaren andJoanna Baillie.
In this century the novel emerged as a major element of Scottish literary and critical life. Tobias Smollett'spicaresque novels, such asThe Adventures of Roderick Random andThe Adventures of Peregrine Pickle mean that he is often seen as Scotland's first novelist. Other Scots who contributed to the development of the novel in the eighteenth century includeHenry Mackenzie,John Moore andJean Marishall.
After the Union in 1707 Scottish literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) was the most important literary figure of the era, often described as leading a "vernacular revival". He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, publishingThe Ever Green (1724), a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period.[1] He led the trend forpastoral poetry, helping to develop theHabbie stanza, which would be later be used by Robert Burns as apoetic form.[2] HisTea-Table Miscellany (1724–37) contained old Scots folk material, his own poems in the folk style and "gentilizings" of Scots poems in the English neo-classical style.[3] Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English. These includedWilliam Hamilton of Gilbertfield (c. 1665–1751), Robert Crawford (1695–1733),Alexander Ross (1699–1784), the JacobiteWilliam Hamilton of Bangour (1704–54), socialiteAlison Rutherford Cockburn (1712–94), and poet and playwrightJames Thomson's (1700–48), most famous for the nature poetry of hisSeasons.[4]
The eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry. Major figures included the satiristRob Donn Mackay (Robert Mackay, 1714–78), the hunter-poetDonnchadh Bàn Mac an t-Saoir (Duncan Ban MacIntyre, 1724–1812)[5] and Uillean Ross (William Ross, 1762–90), most noted for his anguished love songs.[6] The most significant figure in the tradition wasAlasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (Alasdair MacDonald, c. 1698–1770), who emerged as the nationalist poet of the Jacobite cause and whose poetry marks a shift away from the clan-based panegyric tradition.[6] His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poemClanranald's Gallery. He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands, including Thompson'sSeasons, which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic, which was not focused on their relations to human concerns.[5]
James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation, claiming to have found poetry written byOssian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of theClassicalepics.Fingal written in 1762 was speedily translated into many European languages, and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about theRomantic movement in European, and especially inGerman literature, influencingHerder andGoethe.[7] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[8]
Robert Burns (1759–96) was highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as thenational poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement. As well as making original compositions, Burns also collectedfolk songs from across Scotland, often revising oradapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung atHogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficialnational anthem of the country.[9] Burns's poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge ofClassical,Biblical, andEnglish literature, as well as the ScottishMakar tradition.[10] Burns was skilled in writing not only in theScots language but also in theScottish Englishdialect of theEnglish language. Some of his works, such as "Love and Liberty" (also known as "The Jolly Beggars"), are written in both Scots and English for various effects.[11] His themes includedrepublicanism,radicalism,Scottish patriotism,anticlericalism,class inequalities,gender roles, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time,Scottish cultural identity,poverty,sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising.[12]
Major poets writing in the radical tradition of Burns includeAlexander Wilson (1766–1813), whose outspoken views forced him into emigration to the US.[13] Major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poetsJames Hogg (1770–1835) andAllan Cunningham (1784–1842).[14]
Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such asCatherine Trotter (1679–1749), born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen. Her plays and included the verse-tragedyFatal Friendship (1698), the comedyLove at a Loss (1700) and the historyThe Revolution in Sweden (1706). David Crawford's (1665–1726) plays included theRestoration comediesCourtship A-la-Mode (1700) andLove at First Sight (1704). These developed the character of the stage Scot, often a clown, but cunning and loyal.Newburgh Hamilton (1691–1761), born in Ireland of Scottish descent, produced the comediesThe Petticoat-Ploter (1712) andThe Doating Lovers orThe Libertine (1715). He later wrote the libretto for Handel'sSamson (1743), closely based onJohn Milton'sSamson Agonistes. James Thomson's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings, includedSophonisba (1730),Agamemnon (1738) andTancrid and Sigismuda (1745), the last of which was an international success.David Mallet's (c. 1705–65)Eurydice (1731) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to theWalpole administration. The operaMasque of Alfred (1740) was a collaboration between Thompson, Mallet and composerThomas Arne, with Thompson supplying the lyrics for his most famous work, the patriotic songRule, Britannia!.[15]
In Scotland performances were largely limited to those by visiting actors, who faced hostility from the Kirk.[16] In November 1727, Edinburgh Town Council denounced stage plays.[17] TheCourt of Session reversed the magistrates' pleas, but Rev Robert Wodrow complained of plays as "seminaries of idleness, looseness and sin".[17] A pamphlet of the time described actors as, "the most profligate wretches and vilest vermin that hell ever vomited out... the filth and garbage of the earth, the scum and stain of human nature, the excrement and refuse of all mankind".[17] In 1729, the Scots Company of Comedians, formed for dramatic entertainments, was forced to close.[17] The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee, Montrose, Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent.[16] In 1727, Allan Ramsay wrote hisSome Hints in Defence of Dramatic Entertainment.[17] Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber's Close in Edinburgh.[18] Dundee formed a company of players in 1734.[17] However, the passing of the1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and these theatres soon closed.[19]
The Licensing Act began a three-decade period where institutional and organised drama was in abeyance. Eventually the subterfuge of offering a free drama at the end of a musical performance was adopted. This is known to have been used in Edinburgh from 1739 whenThe Provoked Husband was performed. From 1741 regular performances were offered after concerts at the Taylor's Hall.[20] Other performances included a production ofHamlet at the opening of a purpose build theatre, the "Cannongate Concert House" in 1747,[21] which operated as a theatre without a licence into the 1760s.[18]Aberdeen's theatres were closed in 1745 and 1751 by the clergy.[22] In 1752, Glasgow's first theatre was burnt down, shortly afterGeorge Whitfield complained it was the "Devil's Home".[22] Theblank verse tragedyDouglas, by ministerJohn Home, was first performed in 1756 in Edinburgh. It was a success in both Scotland and England for decades, attracting many notable actors, such asEdmund Kean, who made his debut in it,[23]Peg Woffington andSarah Siddons.[24] Home was hounded by the church authorities forDouglas and this may have driven him to leave his parish and move to work on the London stage.[24] Other emigres to London includedTobias Smollett (1721–71), whose playThe Regicide about the death ofJames I failed to gain a production in the capital, but after his success as a novelist it was published in 1749 and hisThe Reprisal, a comedy based on his experiences at sea, was delivered byDavid Garrick at Drury Lane in 1757.[25] Despite the opposition of the church, theatre going began to emerge as a regular part of elite life in Scotland.[26] Performances included Eleanore Carthart, Lady Huston'sCoquettes in 1759, John (or James) Baille's political farcePatriotism in 1763, and Andrew Eskine's cross-dressing love farceShe's Not Him, He's Not Her in 1764.[26] The British government granted the first licence to a Scottish theatre under the act in 1767[21] as part of the plans for the building of theNew Town in Edinburgh. The newTheatre Royal opened in 1769.[26] In Perth it was 1780 before theatre was properly produced. As late as 1784, the council of Dundee prevented a company from Edinburgh from entering the town.[22]
In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work byJames Hogg (1770–1835),John Galt (1779–1839) andJoanna Baillie (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition andGothic Romanticism.[27]Henry Mackenzie (1745–1821) was the first Scott to have a play performed at the new Theatre Royal,The Prince of Tunis in 1773. The play went on to success in both Scotland and London and as well as becoming a successful novelist Mackenzie produced plays includingThe Shipwreck (1784) andForce of Fashion (1789).[26]John Logan's tragedy,Runnamede, was acted in the Edinburgh Theatre in 1783. It reflected contemporary politics in its emphasis on the liberties of the subject,[28][29] drawing parallels betweenKing John andGeorge III, and for that reason the censorship of theLord Chamberlain had prevented its production on the London stage.[30] Among the most prolific of Scottish playwrights wasArchibald Maclaren (1755–1826) whoseThe Conjurer; or, the Scotsman in London (1781) inverted the stereotype of the gullible Scot common in London plays. He went on to produce over a hundred plays.[31] The work of Baillie is now seen as particularly significant, although it was more often anonymously published rather than in performance for much of her lifetime. Baillie's first volume ofPlays on the Passions was published in 1798 consisted ofCount Basil, a tragedy on love,The Tryal, a comedy on love, andDe Monfort, a tragedy on hatred.De Monfort was successfully performed inDrury Lane, London before knowledge of her identity emerged and the prejudice against women playwrights began to effect her career.[32]
The novel in its modern form developed rapidly in the eighteenth century and was soon a major element of Scottish literary and critical life. There was a demand in Scotland for the newest novels includingRobinson Crusoe (1719),Pamela (1740),Tom Jones (1749) andEvelina (1788). There were weekly reviews of novels in periodicals, the most important of which wereThe Monthly Review andThe Critical Review. Lending libraries were established in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen. Private manor libraries were established inestate houses. The universities began to acquire novels and they became part of the curriculum.[33] By the 1770s about thirty novels were being printed in Britain and Ireland every year and there is plentiful evidence that they were being read, particularly by women and students in Scotland. Scotland and Scottish authors made a modest contribution to this early development. About forty full length prose books were printed in Scotland before 1800. One of the earliest was the anonymously authoredSelect Collection of Oriental Tales (1776).[34]
As well as being a poet, essayist, satirist and playwright, Tobias Smollett is best known for hispicaresque novels, such asThe Adventures of Roderick Random (1748) andThe Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (1751) for which he is often seen as Scotland's first novelist.[35] His most influential novel was his last, theepistolary novelThe Expedition of Humphry Clinker (1771).[36] His work would be a major influence on later novelists such asThackeray andDickens.[34] Other eighteenth-century novelists included Henry Mackenzie, whose major workThe Man of Feeling (1771) was asentimental novel dealing with human emotions, influenced bySamuel Richardson andLaurence Sterne and the thinking of philosopherDavid Hume. His later novels,The Man of the World (1773) andJulia de Roubigné (1777) were set in the wilds of America and in France respectively, with the character of the title of the latter being the first female protagonist throughout a Scottish novel.[37] PhysicianJohn Moore's novelZeluco (1789) focused on an anti-hero, the Italian nobleman of the title, and was a major influence on the work ofByron.[38] Female novelists included Jean Marishall (f. 1765–89), who published the epistolary novels,The History of Miss Camilla Cathcart, and Miss Fanny Renton (1766) andThe History of Alicia Montague (1767).[39]
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